Reproduction

of Plants and
Animals

Dr. Mark D. Dublin

Reproduction of Plants
Angiosperms, also calledflowering plants,
have seeds enclosed within an ovary.
gymnospermshave unenclosed or "naked"
seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.

Reproduction in
Angiosperms
Flowersare the sexual reproductive organs in
angiosperms.
They consist of the androecium(male
reproductive structure)
andgynoecium(female reproductive

Male Reproductive Parts of

the Flower
Androeciumis the male reproductive
structure of the plant that consists of a whorl
of stamens.
Thestamenis comprised of the filament and
the anther.
Thefilamentis a long, slender stalk that
holds the anther.
Antherproduces thepollen grains(male

(a) Stamen
(b) a cut section of the
anther

Female Reproductive Parts of

the Flower
Gynoeciumis the female reproductive
structure of a flower. It may consist of a single
pistil (monocarpellary) or may have several
pistils (multicarpellary).
Thepistilis made up of the stigma, the style,
and the ovary.
Thestyleis a slender stalk that supports the
stigma while
thestigmais the sticky part that receives the
pollen.

 Both the male and female gametes of the

flowers are non-motile. They are brought
together by pollination.

Pollination
Pollinationunites the male and female reproductive cells or
gametes. It takes place when the pollen grains from the male
anther are transferred to the female stigma.

Types of Pollination
Autogamyis a type of pollination where pollen grains are
transferred to the stigma ofthe sameflower.
Geitonogamyis a type of pollination where pollen grains are
transferred to the stigma ofanotherflower ofthe sameplant.
Xenogamy, also calledcross-pollination, is a type of pollination
where pollen grains are transferred to the stigma of
adifferentplant.

Agents of Pollination
Abiotic agentsare nonliving things that aid
in the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther to the stigma. They include wind and
water.
Biotic agentsare living things that aid in
pollination. They include animals and even
humans.

 In pollination, the pollen grains are transferred to

the female reproductive structures of a flowering
plant. However, it does not guarantee the
transfer of the correct type of pollen to another
flower since the pollen grains are of the same
species as the stigma where it came from. It is
the pistil of the flower that recognizes whether
the pollen is the correct type or not.

Fertilization
If the received pollen is of the right type, the pistil
recognizes and accepts the pollen to promote postpollination events that lead to fertilization.
Fertilizationtakes place when the sperm
(germinated pollen) unites with the egg (ovule)
forming a fertilized egg called azygote.

Process of Fertilization
1. The pollen grain attaches to the stigma.
2. Each pollen grain becomes a part of the pollen tube, which
grows down the neck of the style and reaches the ovary.
3. Sperm cells are discharged into the embryo sac, fertilizing the
egg cell.

Double Fertilization
During double fertilization, the pollen grain
enters the ovary and releasestwo sperm
cells.
One sperm cell unites with the egg cell
forming a diploid cell or zygote. The other
sperm cell bonds with two polar nuclei
forming a triploid endosperm nucleus.

Post-fertilization
During post-fertilization, thezygotedevelops into
anembryowhile theendosperm nucleusdevelops
into theendosperm.
Also, theovule, which contains the embryo and
endosperm, matures into aseedwhile
theovaryforms thepericarpof the fruit.
The seed is the beginning of the next generation. It
grows into a seedling and then into a mature plant.
The mature plant then produces flowers that contain
the reproductive cells.

Reproduction in
Gymnosperms
Unlike angiosperms, gymnosperms do not have flowers

and fruits. Their ovules, which become seeds, are on the

surface of a scale or modified leaf. Examples of
gymnosperms include cycads and conifers.
Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts calledcones.

They produce two kinds of cones: the male and the female
cones. Themale cones produce the pollenwhile the
female cones contain at least one ovule.

Pollination
In gymnosperms, the main pollinating agent is wind.
Wind carries the pollen from the male cones to the
female cones. A sticky substance secreted by the
ovule collects the pollen.

Fertilization
After pollination, the ovule closes and seals in
the pollen. One sperm cell fertilizes the egg
cell forming azygote.

Post-Fertilization
The fertilized egg develops into an embryo,
and the other parts of the ovule mature into
the seed coat and food store.

Key Points
Angiospermshave seeds enclosed within an ovary whilegymnospermshave
unenclosed or "naked" seeds on the surface of their leaves or scales.
The flower consists of thegynoecium(female reproductive structure) and
androecium(male reproductive structure).
Most gymnosperms have reproductive parts calledcones. The male cones produce the
pollen while the female cones contain at least one ovule.
Pollinationunites the male and female reproductive cells or gametes.
Fertilizationis the union of pollen grain and ovule in the ovary.
Duringdouble fertilization, one sperm cell fertilizes the ovule forming the zygote
(diploid) while the other sperm cell unites with the two polar nuclei to form the
endosperm (triploid).
Inangiosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of the
ovule develops into a fruit.
Ingymnosperm fertilization, the zygote matures into an embryo while the rest of the ovule
develops into a seed.

The Reproduction of Animals

Animals produce sounds which are significant
in their reproduction. It is an essential feature
of living organisms because, without
reproduction, life will not exist.

 There are two types of

reproduction that exists in
living organisms: asexual and
sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproductionis
common among lower form of
animals while sexual
reproductioncan be found
in more complex animals.

Asexual Reproduction
This type of reproduction does not need two parents to produce
an individual. Therefore, the offspring produced is the exact
copy of the parent animal. Most common forms are fission,
fragmentation, and budding.

Fission
Fissionis a type of asexual reproduction wherein
two individuals will form as the parent divides in half.
The illustration below shows a sea anemone
undergoing fission.

Fragmentation
Fragmentation, the breaking
of body parts into fragments, is
always followed by
regeneration and regrowth of
lost parts. Even if the animal is
broken into many pieces, each
piece will grow into a new
individual. Planarians, as shown
in the illustration below, as well
as sponges, cnidarians, bristle

Budding
Buddingis when an outgrowth called abudgrows
and develops from the parent animal and would
eventually separate to become a new individual. This
type of reproduction is common in certain species of
coral and hydra.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction needs two parents to produce an
offspring. The combination of the genes from both
parents increases the chances of species variation.
Therefore, species extinction is highly unlikely.
Fertilization, the union of egg and sperm cells, could
happen internally or externally.

External Fertilization
In external fertilization, the union of egg and sperm occurs
outside the female reproductive tract. This is common among
most species of bony fish and amphibians. As shown in the
illustration below, the clasping of the male frog induces the
female to release eggs, over which the male releases his
sperm.

Most eggs of the amphibians

develop in the water but others
carry them on their back.

Internal Fertilization
Ininternal fertilization, the union of egg
and sperm occurs within the female
reproductive tract. Animals that undergo in
this type of reproduction produce offspring in
any of the following ways: oviparity,
ovoviviparity, and viviparity.

 Oviparity after the eggs are fertilized

internally, it would complete its development
outside the mothers body. The egg would
receive its nourishment through its yolk. This is
found in some bony and cartilaginous fish
(including clown fish and blue tangs), most
reptiles, some amphibians, all birds, and a few
mammals (monotremes).

 Ovoviviparity the eggs are also fertilized

internally and receive its nourishment through its
yolk. However, eggs will complete its development
within the mother. They are then fully developed
when they are hatched and released by the
mother. This is common in some bony fish
(including mollies, guppies, and mosquito fish),
some cartilaginous fish, and many reptiles.

 Viviparity the eggs are developed

internally and receive nourishment
directly from the mothers blood
through placenta rather than from the
yolk. This can be found in most
cartilaginous fish (including lemon
sharks), some amphibians, a few
reptiles, and almost all mammals

Explore!
Jellyfish reproduction involves both sexual and
asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction occurs in
the adult stage where males release sperm and
females release eggs. When sperm and egg
combine, it will form a small larva called planula.
These planulae will attach to rocks and become
polyps. During this stage, they can reproduce
asexually by elongating then budding off to produce
many young jellyfish.

Key Point
Reproductionis an important feature of living organisms because it
ensures continuity of species.
The two types of reproduction that exist in living organisms are asexual and
sexual reproduction.
Asexual reproductioninvolves only one parent to produce a new
individual. The offspring is the exact copy of the parent animal. Most
common forms are fission, fragmentation, and budding.
Fissionis a type of asexual reproduction wherein two individuals will form
as the parent divides in half.
Fragmentationinvolves the breaking of body parts into fragments. Each
piece will regenerate and become a new individual.

 Buddingis when a bud grows and develops from the parent animal then would
eventually separate to become a new individual.
Sexual reproductionneeds two parents to produce an offspring. The
combination of the genes from both parents increases the chances of species
variation.
Fertilizationcould happen internally or externally.
External fertilizationinvolves the union of egg and sperm outside the female
reproductive tract.
Internal fertilizationinvolves the union of egg and sperm within the female
reproductive tract. Animals that undergo in this type of reproduction produce
offspring in any of the following ways:oviparity,ovoviviparity, andviviparity.