FUNDAMENTALS OF FRAME

CONSTRUCTION

Although frame construction in timber is much older, the real

use of frame construction originated with the discovery of
steel. A steel frame can be stabilized without braces. In a
timber frame, on the other hand, some form of bracing is
essential to obtain frame stability.

POST AND BEAM CONSTRUCTION

A post- and-beam assembly consists of columns (posts) and

beams (lintels) with little or no connection between the
posts and the beams. It was among the earliest construction
systems devised by humankind

FRAME

A frame is similar to a post-and-beam assembly,

except that the members of the frame are
connected together. The connection between a
column and a beam can be a pin connection, giving
a pin-connected frame, or it can be a rigid
connection, giving a rigid frame.

A pin connection is defined as a connection that allows the

members to rotate at the connection independently of each
other. In other words, the rotation of one member at the
connection is not transferred to the other member.

The simplest pin-connected frame consists of a

single-bay frame in which the beam is connected
to each column through a single pin (a nail, screw,
or bolt). This connection allows the beam to bend
and rotate under gravity loads without
transferring the bending to the column. The
connection, however, transfers the gravity load on
the beam through shear created in the pin. A pin
connection is, therefore, also referred to as a
shear connection. Another term used for this
connection is a simple connection

In buildings, a joint detailed as a true pin connection is used

for both structural and orna- mental reasons.

PIN CONNECTED CANTILEVER FRAME

One way to ensure the stability of the frame in against
lateral loads is to anchor the columns rigidly into the
ground so that they are cantilevered from the ground like
utility poles. Under the action of a lateral load, both
columns will deflect horizontally, a tendency called racking.
Excessive racking of the cantilevered frame in Figure 7 is
one of its major limitations. Racking can be reduced only by
increasing the size and stiffness of columnsa solution that
becomes increasingly inefficient as the column height
increases.

NOTE:
Racking of a Frame
The term racking refers to lateral deflection
(angular deformation) of a frame under lateral
loads and is an important design consideration.
Building codes limit the amount of racking in
buildings. Excessive racking causes occupant
discomfort,
damage
to
nonstructural
components such as doors and windows, and
fatigue in structural components, which may
lead to structural failure over a period of time.

PIN CONNECTED BRACED FRAME

ABraced Frameis a structural system which is designed

primarily to resist wind and earthquake forces. Members in
abraced frameare designed to work in tension and
compression, similar to a truss. Braced framesare almost
always composed of steel members.

PINNED COLUMN BASE

FOUR PINNED FRAME

A four-pin frame can be stabilized by bracing the frame in its

own plane. The most efficient and most commonly used
bracing system is a set of diagonal braces, also referred to as
X-bracing or cross bracing. X-bracing generally consists of
steel rods, hollow pipes, plates, or angles

OTHER TYPES OF BRACING

Other bracing alternatives are the K-brace and the eccentric Kbrace. K-bracing and eccentric K-bracing are generally used
in multi-story buildings, where substantial
openings (doors or windows) are
required in braced bays. the two differs in details.

SINGLE BRACE

In low-rise buildings, one diagonal brace may be used, which

must be heavy enough to resist compression as well as
tension

PANEL BRACE

The Entire space within the frame is filled with a panel. In

concrete or steel structures, the panel brace consists of a
masonry or concrete infill wall, referred to as an infill brace
or shear wall.

RIGID FRAME
by: GARGACERAN JR., DEMOSTHENES C.

RIGID FRAME
The connections are rigid.
Unlike a pin connection, a rigid
connection retains a 90 angle between
the connected members on deformation
under the loads.
Rigidity implies that the bending of one
member is transferred through the joint
to the other member.
Therefore, a rigid connection is also
called a moment-resisting connection or
simply a moment connection.

RIGID FRAME
Because both the beam and the columns
bend together, all three members of a rigid
frame function collectively in resisting a load.
Consequently, when the beam of a rigid frame
is subjected to gravity loads, its deformation is
smaller than that of the beam in a pin-connected
frame.

RIGID FRAME VS. POST AND BEAM

SIMILARITY
When subjected to a vertical load, the beam or the
horizontal members carries the weight then it is shifted to
the columns or vertical members.

DIFFERENCE
The beams on Post and Beam connection are able to
rotate on top of the columns with no restraint while at the
Rigid Frame connection the joints are strongly connected,
preventing any free rotation to occur at the beams ends.

RIGID FRAME VS. BRACED FRAME

A rigid frame does not require bracing for lateral stability,
providing an unobstructed space.
Rigid frame structures are used only where braced frames
are architecturally unacceptable because of the obstruction
caused by the braces.
Simplicity of connections is one reason why braced steel
frames are preferred over rigid steel frames.
Braced frames are generally less expensive and allow
faster erection.

RIGID FRAME VS. BRACED FRAME

ADVANTAGES OF BRACED FRAME
The columns in a rigid frame are subjected to bending under lateral loads
as seen in the figure. In a braced frame, the columns are subjected to axial
stresses only. Because bending is an inefficient structural action, the
columns in a rigid frame are heavier than the columns in a braced frame.
This difference becomes progressively more pronounced as the height of
the structure increases.

RIGID FRAME VS. BRACED FRAME

ADVANTAGES OF BRACED FRAME

RIGID FRAME VS. BRACED FRAME

ADVANTAGES OF BRACED FRAME
Another limitation of a rigid frame is its arching action,
which makes the columns spread out under gravity loads,
requiring a heavier footing or a tie that connects the
column footings as illustrated in the figure.

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The fundamentals discussed with respect to

single-bay frames also apply to multi-bay
frames. However, it is not necessary to brace
every bay of a multi-bay frame

Sufficient frame stiffness can be achieved by

bracing a few selected bays in a single-story,
multi-bay frame building

As far as possible, braced bays should be

symmetrically located in the building.
Asymmetrical locations of braced bays are
structurally inefficient but may be used where
architectural considerations dictate their use.

In a common braced and rigid-frame

combination, the rigid frame is used along one
principal direction of the building and the braced
frame is used along the other direction

Just as every bay of a multi-bay braced frame

structure need not be braced, every bay of a
multi-bay rigid frame need not be a rigid frame

Sufficient rigidity may be obtained by using rigid

column-beam connections for a few selected
bays and leaving the others as pin connections.

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FRAMES

A much larger number of solutions exist as the

building height increases

Complete coverage of the framing solutions for

high-rise buildings is outside the scope of this
text. The coverage provided here is limited to
buildings up to 30 to 40 stories in height

Note once again that a rigid frame solution

becomes progressively uneconomical with
increasing building height due to the inordinate
increase in column and beam sizes

However, because of the absence of braced bays,

it provides greater adaptability in organizing the
interior spaces and exterior elevations

TALL BUILDINGS
IN STEEL
Reporter: Alison Aaron Tongco

The ideal locations for interior

bracing are around staircase
shafts, elevator shafts, restrooms,
and so on, because such spaces
do not require large openings.

A frequently used bracing system for tall

buildings (up to 30 or 40 stories) is to
brace only
a few interior bays in the center of the
building, giving a rigid central shear
core.

By providing the shear core, all

the lateral loads are resisted by the
core. Therefore, the columns, which
are not part of the core (e.g.,
perimeter columns),
do not resist any lateral loads.

They are designed to resist gravity

loads only. Additionally, all columnbeam connections are simple
connections.

The core is used to enclose

functions such as stairs, elevators,
restrooms, and HVAC shafts. For an
office building, the core may occupy
as much as one-third of the total
floor area of the building at each
floor.

In a high-rise building, which is

much longer in one direction than
in the other direction, a
combination of a shear core and
braced end shear walls is often
used.