1

Microwave Fundamentals
Proprietary & Confidential
Slide 1
Microwave Fundamentals
Radio Propagation
Terminologies.
Polarization.
Microwave Frequency Bands.
Free space Loss.
Antenna .
Fresnel Zone
Modulation Technologies (QAM).
SDH,PDH,E1
Slide 2
Radio Propagation
Slide 3
Radio Wave Propagation & Its

characteristics
a. Radio Wave Propagation & Its Characterstics
i) Definition of Microwave :
Microwaves in a descriptive term used to identify electromagnetic waves in the frequency
spectrum ranging approx from 1 GHz to 30GHz. This corresponds to wavelength 30cm
to 1 cm. Since the wavelength is small the phase varies rapidly with distance, thus a
signal reaching to a point from two different routes may cause constructive or destructive
interference. Moreover these frequencies contain two energies (Electric and Magnetic)
so also known as ELECTROMAGNATIC WAVES. Propagations of this waves happens
in such a way that direction of propagation, Electric field and Magnetic field always
remains perpendicular to each other. Microwaves frequencies characteristics are very
much similar to light. The same is shown in the figure:
Slide 4

characteristics
E
H
Depending on the topography and the meteorological conditions, radio waves propagate
In different ways causing attenuation to the original wave. Following propagation
mechanisms come into play:
ii) Reflection :
When electromagnetic waves incide on a surface they may be reflected depending on
the smoothness of the surface. When the surface is smooth and its size is greater than
the wavelength of the wave then it is Reflected.
Slide 5

characteristics
i
Where i = incident angle

r = reflected angle
Glazy Surface
iii) Refraction :
Bending of waves when passing through one media to other media of different refractive
index is called REFRACTION. Radio waves travel with different velocities in different
medium depending on their dielectric constants. The dielectric constant of the
atmosphere decrease with altitude. Thus the waves travel slower in the lower part of
atmosphere where dielectric constant is greater and faster in the upper part where
dielectric constant is lower thus refracting the beam downwards.
Slide 6

characteristics
RI1 Medium 1
Where RI1 = Refractive index of medium 1

RI2 = Refractive index of medium 2
RI2
Medium 2
RI1 < RI2
iv) K-Factor & Effective Earth Radius:

In a horizontally homogeneous atmosphere where the vertical change of dielectric
constant is gradual, the bending or refraction is continuous, so that the ray is slowly
bent away from the thinner density air towards thicker, thus making the beam tend to
follow the earths curvature. This bending can be directly related to the radii of
spheres. The first sphere being the earth itself (radius =6370 km) and the second
Slide 7

characteristics
sphere is formed by the curvature of the ray beam with its center coinciding the
earths center. The K- Factor thus can be defined as the ratio of the radius, r, of the
ray beam curvature to the true earth radius r.
i.e. K = r / r, where K is called effective earth radius factor and r is the effective earth
radius.
Effective Radio
For K = infinity
Optical Line of sight
For K = 1
Transmitter Antenna
Receiver
For K = 0.5
Effective Earth
Slide 8
Antenna

characteristics
v) Scattering :
When Electromagnetic waves incide on a rough surface having rough edges whose
dimension is less than the wavelength of the wave, it is scattered in different
directions. Scattering is a phenomenon which causes vector distribution of energy as
shown in the figure.
Incident wave
Scattered waves
vi) Absorption :
At frequencies above 10 GHz the propagation of radio waves through the atmosphere
of the earth is strongly affected by the resonant absorption of electromagnetic energy
by molecular water vapour and oxygen. The amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere strongly varies from place to place according to the local meteorological
conditions.
Slide 9

characteristics
vii) Attenuation :
As the EM waves travels it losses its energy, this is due to attenuation. Attenuation is
due to presence of other field (Magnetic or Electric), Due to fog, Due to Rain etc.
P1
P2
Attenuation = 10 log (P2/P1) db
Rain Attenuation : Scattering and absorption of the radio wave by raindrops causes
attenuation. Although all frequencies are subject to these effects, rain attenuation is
of practical importance for frequencies above 10 GHz. Due to the random
behaviour of the rain events the same is not included as a contribution to the Link
Budget calculation.
Slide 10

characteristics
viii) Fading :
Fading is defined as any time varying of phase, polarization, and/ or level of a
received signal. The most basic propagation mechanism involved in Fading are
reflection, refraction, diffraction, scattering, attenuation and guiding(ducting).
i.
Multi path Fading :
It is a common type of fading encountered in LOS radio links. This type of fading
results due to the interference between direct rays and component of ground
reflected wave & partial reflection from atmosphere.
ii.
Fading due to Earth Bulge :
iii.
Duct & Layer fading : Atmospheric ducts consisting of superrefractive and a
subrefractive layer or vice versa.

iv.
Surface duct fading on over water path : It is a combination of multi path fading
due to water body and fading due to atmospheric duct.
Slide 11

characteristics
Effective Earth
Effective Earth
Multi path fading
Atmospheric duct
Effective Earth
Fading due to earth bulge
Water Body
Surface duct
Slide 12
Trunk Radio Characteristics
Long distance
Therefore lower frequencies
Therefore subject to Multipath fading
Diversity route compensation
Lower frequencies less effected by rain
Slide 13
Wave Propagation in Atmosphere

With Atmosphere
No Atmosphere
The highest index of refraction is near the surface of the

earth, the waves are bent towards the ground
K-Value is a common used value to indicate ray bending

with respect to the physical radius of the earth
For a normal atmosphere K value equals 4/3
Slide 14
Multipath
Multipath propagation occurs when there are more

then one ray reaching the receiver
Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading
Direct beam
Delayed beam
Slide 15
Diffraction
Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructed by surface with

sharp irregular edges
Waves bends around the obstacle, even when line of sight does not
exist
Slide 16
Fade Margins
Fading depends on atmospheric conditions, path climatic
conditions and path terrain (need a path profile)
Rx signal level
Rx signal level - rain
Thermal
Fade
Flat
Fade
Margin
Margin
Flat
fade
Margin
Rain
Rx Threshold level + interference
Rx Threshold level
Effective
Fade
Margin
RSL
Flat Dispersive
Fade
Fade
Margin Margin
Slide 17
Rain Fading
Rain Outage due to water absorption

Increases with frequency
Depends on amount of water in path

Rain rate (mm/hr)
Depends on rain region

How often does that mm/hr occur
Rain falls as flattened droplet

V better than H
Slide 18
Polarization
i) Electromagnetic Waves & Fields
Energy in EM waves is in form of Electric and Magnetic field. Energy of any MW wave
is vector sum of its all-electrical and magnetic components. The concept can be better
understood from the following diagrams :
E
M
E16 E1
H12 H13
E2
E3
E15
E4
E14
E5
E13
E6
E12
E7
E11
E10 E9
H14
H15
H11
E8
H16
H10
H1
H9
H2
H8
H3
H7
H6
H5
H4
Slide 19
Polarization
ii) Polarization ( H, V & Circular):
When EM wave contains E and H energies in all direction that is know as circularly
Polarized as shown in the last figure.
When EM waves has got only electrical component perpendicular to Horizon of earth,
is known as Vertical Polarized wave.
When EM waves has got electrical component parallel to Horizon of earth, known as
Horizontally polarized wave.
Vertically polarized wave travels longer distance as compare to horizontally polarized
wave.
P=V
P=H
Earth
Slide 20
Microwave Frequency
Band
Slide 21
i) Microwave Frequency Bands as per ITU Radio Regulation :

Radio Waves are defined by Radio Regulations of the International telecommunication
Union.The radio spectrum allocated for Microwave are UHF,SHF and EHF as
mentioned below in the table:
Band Number
4
5
Symbol
VLF
LF
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
Metric
Corresponding Abbreviations for
Frequency Range Metric Subdivision
the band
3 to 30 kHz
Myriametric waves
B. Mam
30 to 300 kHz
Kilometric waves
B. km
300 to 3000 kHz Hectometric waves
3 to 30 MHz
Decametric waves
30 to 300 MHz
Metric waves
300 to 3000 MHz Decimetric waves
3 to 30 GHz
Centimetric waves
30 to 300 GHz
Milimetric waves
300 to 3000 GHz Decimilimetric waves
Slide 22
B. hm
B. dam
B. m
B. dm
B. cm
B. mm
Microwave frequency bands
Band Designator
Frequency (GHz
Wavelength in Free
Space (centimeters)
L band
1 to 2
30.0 to 15.0
S band
2 to 4
15 to 7.5
C band
4 to 8
7.5 to 3.8
X band
8 to 12
3.8 to 2.5
Ku band
12 to 18
2.5 to 1.7
K band
18 to 27
1.7 to 1.1
Ka band
27 to 40
1.1 to 0.75
V band
40 to 75
0.75 to 0.40
W band
75 to 110
0.40 to 0.27
Slide 23
Prefix
Factor
Symbol
atto
10-18
fempto
10-15
pico
10-12
nano
10-9
micro
10-6
milli
10-3
centi
10-2
deci
10-1
deka
101
Da
hecto
102
kilo
103
mega
106
giga
109
tera
1012
Slide 24
ii) Microwave Frequency Band used in Practical Systems :

2, 6 and 7 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Intercity Backbone routes.
Nominal Hop Distances 25 40 Km
15,18 and 23 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Access Network
Nominal Hop Distance 1 10 Km.
: Government will allocate spot Frequency. Index of Radios
will be decided by Spot frequency. Channel No will be calculated using allocated spot
frequency. To obtain the same applications have to be forwarded to the following
government bodies :
iii) SACFA (Standing Advisory Committee for Frequency Allocation)
It is a government Wing which allocates frequency and also gives tower ht clearance.
Before allocation Of frequency it checks not to cause interference to existing users.
Before giving tower
Slide 25
height clearance it checks that it should not cause obstruction to exiting MW link,
should not be in funnel zone of Aircraft etc.
iv) WPC (Wireless Planning Committee) - It is a government wing which takes
charges from operator for use of MW frequency pair. Charges are based on the
and width used and annual gross revenue.
Slide 26
v) Frequency & Bandwidth :

a) Introduction :
The implementation of digital LOS radio links has accelerated due to transition of
telephone network to an all digital network. The digital network is based on a PCM
waveform, which when compared to analog FDM is wasteful of bandwidth. A nominal
4-kHz voice channel on an FDM baseband system occupies about 4-kHz of
bandwidth. On an FDM/FM radiolink, by rough estimation we can say it occupies
about 16 kHz.
In conventional PCM baseband system, allowing 1 bit per Hz of
bandwidth, a 4-KHz voice channel roughly requires 64kHz (64 kbps) of bandwidth.
This is derived using Nyquist sampling rate of 8000 / sec (4000 Hz x 2) and each
sample is assigned an 8-bit code word, thus 8000 x 8 bits per second or 64 kbps.
Thus it is essential to select modulation techniques that are bandwidth conservative.
Slide 27
b) Modulation techniques used :

The digital modulation schemes such as FSK, BPSK/QPSk, 8-ary PSK, 4-QAM, 8
QAM and 16-QAM are most commonly used. For eg the table shows comparision of
Analog and digital modulation techniques:
Bandwidth
Voice Channel Capacity
Max Data Capacity
E1 capacity
System Gain
600 channel FM Analog

10 MHz
600
11.52Mbps
10
110.4 dB
16 QAM Digital
10 MHz
384
25 Mbps
12
111.5 dB
c) Bandwidth Requirement :
As per the no. of channel requirements the bandwidth of the system can be decided.
For example for 4mbps I.e. 60 nos of 64 kbps channels I.e. 4 Mbps , bandwidth of of
3.5MHz is required and so on as mentioned below:
7 MHz for 8 Mbps, 14 MHz for 16 Mbps and so on.
Slide 28
Terminologies
Slide 29
Terminologies
i.Azimuth and Importance of North direction
It is angle of antenna direction w.r.t. north in clockwise direction. This is also known as
bearing.
ii.AMSL
Above mean sea level. An antenna at AMSL 20m means it is 20meter higher than the mean
sea level.
Slide 30
Terminologies
iii.db, dbm
db=it is logarithmic ratio
db = 10 log P1/P2.
3db loss of power is power reduced to half.
dbm is the logarithmic ratio of power w.r.t 1. miliwatt
1 mW power in dbm is =10 log 1mW/1mW = 10 log 0 = 0dbm
1 W power in dbm is = 10 log 10W/1mW =30dbm
iv) Antenna Gain and Beam width

Beam width of an antenna is the angle in which antenna radiates energy.
Antenna Gain is measured w.r.t. isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates power in all direction.
In practical system the energy needs to be radiated in the desired direction in desired beam width. Thus
the total energy confined in the smaller aperture. Unit of antenna gain is dbi.
Antenna Gain
= 17.8 + 20 * log10 (f *d) dBi
Where d= Antennae Diameter in Meter and f= Frequency in GHz
Slide 31
Beam width
Terminologies
v)
AGC
AGC stands for Automatic Gain Control. Media between two antennae in MW system is variable
thus the path loss. MW system is designed in such a way that it can add or reduces the gain to
compensate the variation in path loss. This mechanism is known as AGC system.
vi) Spot frequency

MW system transmits information after
modulation on carrier frequency from one point to another. The carrier frequency is known as spot
frequency. We need to set a spot frequency in MW system (also known as channel number).
Slide 32
Terminologies
i.
Diversity
ii.
It is used to improve system performance. There are two types of

diversity used.
1. Space Diversity
2. Frequency Diversity
F1
F2
Space
Diversity
Frequency
Diversity
Slide 33
Free Space Propagation
Slide 34
Free Space propagation

i.
Free Space Propagation :
As described earlier characteristics of Microwave is very much similar to light waves.

Velocity of Microwaves is same as velocity of light waves. Velocity of the light (C) is
3x 108 meter per second.
Also we know that C = F *
(F=frequency and = wavelength).
As the EM wave travels in free space it looses energy. Free Space transmission loss
is the least possible loss between a transmitter and a receiver. The same can be
defined by the formula:
P loss = 32.4 + 20 log f *d
where f is Frequency in MHz and d is Distance in KM
Slide 35
Free Space propagation

ii) Importance of Free Space Loss :
As described free space loss is the loss calculated in space thus it is minimum loss
incurred when EM waves travels a distance. Loss when EM waves travels the same
distance in other media will be higher than the loss in free space. Exact loss can be
calculated by giving other external environmental inputs to planning tool.
Slide 36
Free Space Loss
L fs 92.45 20 log(d f )
Examples
39 GHz
d=1km ---> L = 124 dBm
d=2km ---> L = 130 dBm
26 GHz
d=1km ---> L = 121 dBm
d=2km ---> L = 127 dBm
For 39 GHz, L 118 + 6d
For 26 GHz, L 115 + 6d
For 23 GHz, L 120 + 6d
For 18 GHz, L 112 + 6d
Slide 37
Antenna Basics
Slide 38
vi) Antenna Design for Microwave Systems :

a) Introduction :
Antennas form the link between the guided waves and the free space part of a radio
or microwave system. The guided parts are cables or waveguides to and from the
transmitter and receiver.
b) Purpose of Antennas :
The purpose of a transmitting antenna is to efficiently transform the current in a circuit
or waveguide into radiated radio or microwave energy. The purpose of a receiving
antenna is to efficiently accept the radiated energy and convert it to guided form for
detection and processing by a receiver.
c) Types of Antenna :
Antennas for radio and microwave system falls into two broad categories depending
on the degree to which the radiation is confined.
Slide 39
Microwave and satellite communications use pencil beam antennas where the
radiation is confined to one narrow beam of energy, whereas Mobile communications
and broadcasting use omni directional pattern in the horizontal plane and toroidal
pattern in the vertical plane. At microwave frequencies the most common type of
pencil beam antenna is a medium to large size reflector antenna. This consists of a
reflector, or, mirror which collimates the signal from a feed horn at the focus of the
reflector. These are aperture antennas because the basic radiating element is an
Aperture.
`
Pencil Beam
Toroidal Beam
Reflector Antenna
& Feed Horn
Slide 40
d) Size and Gain of Microwave Antenna :

The axi-symmetric parabolic reflector with a feed at the focus of the paraboloid is the
simplest type of reflector antenna used in microwave application. The paraboloid has
the property that energy from the feed horn at the focus F goes to the point P on the
surface where it is reflected parallel to the axis to arrive at a point A on the imaginary
aperture plane. The equation describing the surface is :
r 4F( F z ) where F is the focal length. At the
Edge of the reflector the relationship between the
focal length and the diameter D is given by :
F / D = cot (
The depth of the paraboloid is specified by its F/D ratio.

Common sizes for microwave reflector antennas are
between F/D =0.25 which makes = 90to F/D =0.5
which gives = 53
Slide 41
z
F
The peak gain of the reflector antenna is calculated as :

G = 4X effective aperture area / = ( D / )
Hence more the gain larger will be the size of the antenna used.
Slide 42
deciBel
Pout mW
Pin mW
G=?
Gain is a referenced Value without
measurements units
When trying to calculate cascade amplifiers in most cases it will

be difficult using the linear way (long numbers and most of the
time not round ones).This is the reason for working in decibels.
G=10Log(Pout/Pin) [dB]
1mW = -30dBW = 0dBm
Log ( A B ) LogA LogB
Slide 43
Pout
Pin
Power measurements units in a logarithmical world is

dBm (in reference to 1mW) or dBW (in reference to 1W).
1W = 0dBW = 30dBm
A reminder
Pin
Pou
1 =
2 =
3 =
4 =
5 =
6 =
7 =
8 =
9 =
10 =
0
3
4.7
6
7
7.7
8.5
9
9.5
10
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
dB
Antennas Basics
Definition
= wavelength = c/f
f = 3.5 GHz = 8.571 cm
- Transmission line - The device used to guide RF energy from one point to another one, with minimum
attenuation, heat and radiation losses.
Guides the energy
- Radio antenna
- The structure associated with the region of transition between a guided wave and
a free space wave, or vice versa.
Radiates/receives energy
Generator
Transmission line
(spacing between wires is only
a fraction of the wave length)
Slide 44
Antenna
(separation between wires
is in the range of one or
more wave lengths)
Directivity
- Isotropic antenna (theoretical)
Generator
The energy fed into the antenna is radiated

in the whole space.
A receiver RCV, located in the far field of the
transmitter, gets the basic element of energy
generated by the presence of 17dBm (50mW) in
the whole space.
17 dBm (50mW)
RCV
- Non-isotropic antenna (real)

RCV
Generator
17 dBm (50mW)
Slide 45
The energy fed into the antenna is radiated only

in part of the space.
A receiver RCV, located in the far field of the
transmitter, gets the basic element of energy
generated by the presence of 17dBm (50mW) in
the defined volume, which is equivalent with the
presence of much more energy isotropically
distributed.
- Non-isotropic antenna (real)

RCV
Generator
For same amount of energy fed into the antenna, a

non-isotropic antenna will transmit its signal over
longer distances.
Non-isotropic antennas are characterized by their
capability to focus the transmitted energy,
expressed by the antenna gain
17 dBm (50mW)
Antenna gain = 10 Log
Generator
17 dBm (50mW)
RCV
Volume (radiation) of subject antenna

[dBi]
volume (radiation) of isotropic antenna
e.g. - An antenna with 3dBi gain, radiates its energy

into 50% of the space.
Conclusion - A 3dBi antenna fed with
17dBm behaves (in its active field) as an isotropic
antenna fed with 20dBm
Even if, in fact, the antenna radiates only 17 dBm,
it is said that it radiates 20 dBm EIRP (Equivalent
Isotropic Radiated Power)
Slide 46
Radiation Patterns for some

antennas
Gain
(dBi)
Geometry
Radiation Pattern
Half Power Beam

Width (HPBW)
Horizontal
Vertical
18
18
18
35
2.5
2.5
Slide 47
Antenna Pattern
at 3.500000 GHz
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
-35
-40
-45
-50
-180
-120
-60
Slide 48
60
120
180
Andrew antenna Specification
Slide 49
VHP2A-220A-241 is:
ValuLine High Performance, shielded, single
polarized(VHPX Shielded, Dual Polarized)
2 ft (0.6 m) in diameter
Non-compliant to UK RA specifications (blank
Compliant to UK RA Specification)
21.2-23.6 GHz band(142 14.25-15.35 GHz)
A Revision
PBR220, 1.20 VSWR
White antenna, white radome, no flash
Standard
packing
Slide 50
Fresnel Zone
A family of ellipsoids that can be constructed between a transmitter
and a receiver by joining all the various ways of the destructives
electromagnetic waves, in reference to the direct line of transmission.
The circles indicate the geometric place of

all the waves that passed the way: d'1+d'2
Transmitter
Receiver
d1
d2
Slide 51
Fresnel Zone
The radius of each of the circles in the figure is
calculated using the following equation:
rn
nd1d 2
d1 d 2
Base Antenna
site
Terminal
Antenna site
rF: 1st Fresnel zone

radius
d2: distance from

Terminal: 1.2Km
Possible obtructor
d1 distance from Base to

obcstacle: 1.8Km
Slide 52
Fresnel Zone
L = 20 dB
L = 6 dB
Slide 53
Fresnel Zone Tables
3.5GHz
50
200
700
1200
1700
2200
2700
3200
3700
4200
4700
5200
5700
6200
6700
7200
7700
8200
8700
9200
97
50
1.5
1.9
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
2.1
200
1.9
2.9
3.7
3.8
3.9
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
4.1
700
2.0
3.7
5.5
6.2
6.5
6.7
6.9
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.2
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.4
7.5
7.5
1200
2.0
3.8
6.2
7.2
7.8
8.2
8.4
8.6
8.8
8.9
9.1
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.3
9.4
9.4
9.5
9.5
9.5
1700
2.0
3.9
6.5
7.8
8.5
9.1
9.5
9.8
10.0
10.2
10.3
10.5
10.6
10.7
10.8
10.9
10.9
11.0
11.0
2200
2.0
4.0
6.7
8.2
9.1
9.7
10.2
10.6
10.9
11.1
11.3
11.5
11.7
11.8
11.9
12.0
12.1
12.2
2700
2.1
4.0
6.9
8.4
9.5
10.2
10.8
11.2
11.6
11.9
12.1
12.3
12.5
12.7
12.8
13.0
13.1
3200
2.1
4.0
7.0
8.6
9.8
10.6
11.2
11.7
12.1
12.5
12.8
13.0
13.3
13.5
13.6
13.8
3700
2.1
4.0
7.1
8.8
10.0
10.9
11.6
12.1
12.6
13.0
13.3
13.6
13.9
14.1
14.3
4200
2.1
4.0
7.2
8.9
10.2
11.1
11.9
12.5
13.0
13.4
13.8
14.1
14.4
14.6
4700
2.1
4.1
7.2
9.1
10.3
11.3
12.1
12.8
13.3
13.8
14.2
14.5
14.9
5200
2.1
4.1
7.3
9.1
10.5
11.5
12.3
13.0
13.6
14.1
14.5
14.9
5700
2.1
4.1
7.3
9.2
10.6
11.7
12.5
13.3
13.9
14.4
14.9
6200
2.1
4.1
7.3
9.3
10.7
11.8
12.7
13.5
14.1
14.6
6700
2.1
4.1
7.4
9.3
10.8
11.9
12.8
13.6
14.3
7200
2.1
4.1
7.4
9.4
10.9
12.0
13.0
13.8
7700
2.1
4.1
7.4
9.4
10.9
12.1
13.1
8200
2.1
4.1
7.4
9.5
11.0
12.2
8700
2.1
4.1
7.5
9.5
11.0
9200
2.1
4.1
7.5
9.5
9700
2.1
4.1
7.5
Slide 54
3.5 GHz vs. 26 GHz Fresenel Zone
100
90
height (m)
80
70
26GHz
60
3.5GHz
50
40
`30
20
10
0
Range (km)
Slide 55
10
Modulations Technologies
Slide 56
Introduction
Examples for modulation techniques:
Quadrate Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Quadrate Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
Etc.
Slide 57
Modulation Techniques - Basic

Techniques
Data bits modulate (modify) a carrier signal

message(t)
Basic modulation techniques
Amplitude
Frequency
Phase
data bits
unmodulated
carrier
Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
Frequency Modulation
(FSK)
(Differential) Phase
Modulation (DPSK)
Slide 58
carrier
modulator
transmitted
signal
Modulation Techniques - Basic Techniques
Data bits are represented over the transmission

channel by SYMBOLS
Symbol rate is expressed in Baud
Jean Maurice Emile BAUDOT
(1845 - 1903)
- 1874 - Baudot code - 5 bits - for
use with telegraphs (more
economical than Morse
code)
- 1894 - Telegraph multiplexer
Slide 59
Modulation Techniques
Symbols
Symbol
Is a sinusoidal signal (carrier) with specific parameters
dictated by the bit(s), transmitted for finite period of
time.
Carrier parameters do not change for the duration of
the symbol
Even if the symbol itself is comprised of one single
frequency (the carrier), the fact that it is transmitted
over a finite period of time generates an infinite
spectrum, centered on the carrier frequency.
Slide 60
Modulation Techniques - Symbols
Time domain
Frequency domain
A
unmodulated
carrier
fc
Modulated
carrier
(symbols)
fc
1
T
Slide 61
Modulation Techniques - Quadrature

Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
QAM is a modulation modifying the phase and

the amplitude of the carrier signal
QAM symbols are represented by the carrier
signal being transmitted with specific phase /
amplitude (dictated by the message), for finite
periods of time.
Slide 62
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

(QAM)
Symbol 1 is a
cosine
waveform of:
Polar Coordinates
A1
Symbol presentation
symbol 1 - amplitude A1
- phase
A
Amplitude distance from origin
Phase Angle from positve x axis
A1 cos t
A1cos t
(phase 0; reference)
Symbol 1 = A1cos(t )
Symbol Generation
For the generation of such symbols, there is a need for an oscillator

able to modify its phase based on the symbol that has to be
transmitted not a very trivial topic.
Symbol reception
To identify the symbol, the receiver needs a reference carrier, in phase with
the carrier used by the transmitter (coherent demodulation).
Slide 63
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
I/Q coordinates (a bit of trigonometry)
cos(t - ) = cos t*cos + sin t*sin
As is constant :
cos(t - ) = Kc*cos t + Ks*sin t
cos = constant = Kc
sin = constant = Ks
Symbol representation
A cosine waveform of frequency t with any specific phase can be

represented as the sum of a sine and a cosine waveforms of same
frequency t.
The phase of the resultant signal is dictated by the relative amplitudes of

the sine and cosine waveforms, through Kc = cosine amplitude = cos ;
Ks = sine amplitude = sin
By controlling Kc and Ks, any phase of the waveform may be generated.
A cosine waveform may be identified by its

In phase (I) component amplitude, Kc (cosine)
Quadrature phase (Q) component amplitude, Ks (sine)
Slide 64
Modulation (QAM)
I/Q coordinates
Examples
Q
=
4
= 0.7
4
Ks = sin = 0.7
4
cos(t - ) = 0.7cos t + 0.7sin t
4
Kc = cos
=
4
=
8
= 0.9
8
Ks = sin = 0.4
8
cos(t - ) = 0.9cos t + 0.4sin t
8
Kc = cos
Slide 65
Modulation (QAM)
I/Q coordinates
Symbol Generation
cos(t - ) = Kc*cos t + Ks*sin t
Kc
cos t
Ks
cos t
sin t
symbol
Easier to implement
Symbol reception
The symbol is identified by the relative amplitude of the sine and cosine components.
there is no need for coherent carrier.
Slide 66
Mapping process
QAM64 has 64 constellation points

Constellation Point
Q
Constelation
point
When the mapping

process received the
6 bits needed to be
transmitted it divide it
to 3 bits for Q signal
and the other 3 bits
for the I signal. Then it choose the right
constellation point which represent the bits needed
to be transmitted.
I
Slide 67
Mapping process
The bits to be transmitted are 101111.
Q level
I level
Slide 68
The bits are divided

Constelation
into
3 bits for Q and 3
bits forpoint
I.
101 -> Q 111 -> I
The Q signal are at a
certain level defined by
the mapping process.
The I signal is handled
in the same manner.
Modulation (QAM)
nr. of sine
amplitudes
constellation
nr. of
cosine
amplitudes
generated using
phases
number of
amplitudes
bit rate / Baud

rate
number of bits
per symbol
modulation
technique
number of symbols
QAM constellations (patterns)
(3 bits)
(3 bits)
Q
000100 001100 011100 010100 110100 111100
101100 100100
+7
000101 001101 011101 010101 110101 111101
101101 100101
+5
000111 001111
011111
010111 110111
111111
101111
100111
+3
000110 001110 011110
64QAM
64
6/1
52
-7
-5
-3
010110 110110 111110

-1
+1
+1
+3
101110 100110
+5
+7
000010 001010 011010 010010 110010 111010 101010 100010

-1
000011 001011 011011 010011 110011 111011
101011 100011
-3
000001 001001 011001 010001 110001 111001 101001 100001
-5
not all
combinations
are used
000000 001000 011000 010000 110000 111000 101000 100000

-7
Slide 69
128 QAM Costellation.
Slide 70
Q/I formats
Q and I are 90 difference from each other.
Each one of those signals is basically enhanced
(Quadurate) Amplitude Modulation.
Due to the fact the signals have 90 they will not
interfere each other if they are combined.
Combination of those signals will provide us ..
a signal with Amplitude and Phase changes !
Slide 71
Link Budget
i) Transmit Power, Receiver Sensitivity & Fade Margin
a.
Transmit Power :
This is the RF power which is transmitted by RF unit.
b.
Receiver Sensitivity :
This is the minimum power, which can be sensed by RF unit and signals can be
received.
c.
Fade Margin :
Fade Margin = Receiver Threshold (10E-6) - Actual received power
Slide 72
Link Budget
ii) Link Budget
The Link Budget sums all attenuations and amplifications of the signal between the
transmitter output and receiver input terminals. This can be illustrated in the figure
below:
Power
Output
Power
Propagation Loss
and attenuation
Feeder
Loss
Antenna
Gain
Antenna
Gain
Feeder
Loss
Received
Power
Receiver
Threshold
Fading
Margin
4dB
Distance
Transmitted & Received Power

Slide 73
Link Budget
As illustrated in the figure the received Power in the radio link terminal can be
calculated as follows :
Pin = Pout AF + G ABF A0 AG AL
Where Pin = Received Power (dBm)
Pout = Transmitted Power (dBm)
AF = Antenna Feeder Loss (dB)
G = Antenna Gain (dBi)
ABF = Free space Loss (dB) (between isotropic antennas)
A0 = Obstacle Loss (dB)
AG = Gas Attenuation (dB)
AL = Additional Loss (dB)
Slide 74
Noise and sensitivity

To every transmitted signal a thermal noise is added, the thermal noise is marked by the
letter N and defined by Boltsman constant [K] ( K 1.38 10 23 ) multiple the temperature in
Kelvin [T] (room temperature equal to 290) multiple the bandwidth in MHz [B]. Or in other
words (in the linear way)
N K T B
in the logarithmical way

Signal to Noise Ration (SNR) defined as the ratio between the signal strength and the noise
strength.
Every active system adds a certain noise to the signal the parameter which described it call
Noise Figure (NF). Noise figure defined as the ratio between the input SNR to the output
SNR.
NF SNR SNR
NF S IN N IN SNROUT
S IN N IN NF SNROUT
IN
IN
OUT
114 10 LogB NF SNROUT
N 10 Log ( K T ) 10 LogB 114 10 LogB

Slide 75
Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR)
Power
received
Power
received
Required
received
power
Sensitivity
Sensitivity
SNR
SNR
SNR
External
interference
Noise floor
Noise floor
{thermal
noise +
implementation
noise (NF)}
Calculating receiver sensitivity
)Note: SNR is a function of rate; values range from 5 dB to 30 dB(
:For correct operation Pr interference + SNR

Slide 76
2 Mbps Signal
1.
Construction of 2Mbps signal

i.
Voice frequency
ii.
Sampling
iii.
Qunatization
iv. Digitization
v.
64 kbps signal Multiplexing.
vi. PDH
vii. SDH
Slide 77
Voice Frequency
Energy
Frequency in Hz
0
300
3400
Slide 78
4000
Sampling
Voltage
Time
Voltage
Time
Slide 79
Quantization
Before Quantization
After Quantization
Fixed
256nos
Voltage
levels
Time
Slide 80
Digitization
Each sample will be

represented by 8 bits
Slide 81
64 kbps Multiplexing
0
1
2
3
4
Mu
ltip
lex
er
25
2Mbps stream
26
27
28
29
30
31
27
Slide 82
28
29
30
31
PDH
2Mbps stream
1
2/8
Multiplexer
2
3
4
8Mbps stream
8 / 32
Multiplexer
3
4
32 Mbps stream
32 / 140
Multiplexer
3
4
M=Multiplexer
Slide 83
140 Mbps stream
SDH
2Mbps stream
2Mbps stream
1
1
2
STM-1
STM-1
ADM
20
21
20
21
2Mbps stream
Slide 84
PDH- Plesynchronous Digital

Hierarchy
i.
Level
0
1
2
3
4
Rate(Mb/s)
0.064
2.048
8.448
34.368
139.264
E1
1
4
16
64
Slide 85
SDH-Synchronous digital Hierarchy
Level
STM-1
STM-4
STM-8
STM-16
STM-64
Rate(Mb/s)
155.52
622.08
1244.16
2488.32
~10GHz
E1
63
252
504
1008
4032
Slide 86
Some popular 50 Ohms Coax cable
Type
Frequeny
MHz
Power*
Watts
Loss dB
per 100 ft
Diameter
inches
Rel. cost
RG58
0-3000
45
15-20
0.2"
low
RG8/RG2
13
0-3000
190
9-10
0.4"
moderate
Belden
9913
0-1000
275
4-5
0.4"
moderate
Times
LMR400
0-2000
350
3.5-4
0.4"
moderate
1/2" Alum.
0-3000
650
3-3.5
0.6"
moderate
1/2" Heliax
0-8000
900
2-2.5
0.6"
high
7/8" Heliax
0-5000
2,000
1.25-1.5
1.0"
high
*
Slide 87
Slide 88

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Microwave Fundamentals

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Radio Wave Propagation & Its

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600 channel FM Analog