THE

CARDIOVASCULAR
SYSTEM

Dr. Cecelia Waugh-Hall

Introduction
The circulatory system is
comprised of the heart, veins,
capillaries, arteries, lymph
vessels, and lymph glands,
which work together to supply
the body tissues with
nourishment and collect
waste materials.

Functions of the
cardiovascular system:
Distribute nutrients
(glucose) to cells
Transport of oxygen to cells
Transport of CO2 away from
cells
Distribute secretions of
endocrine glands

Functions of the
cardiovascular system:
Movement of immune
system components
(cells,
antibodies)
Prevent excessive
bleeding
Prevent infection, and
Regulate body
temperature.

Anatomy and
Physiology of the Blood
Blood is an important
component of the
cardiovascular system.
Anatomically and functionally,
blood is a connective tissue.

Components of Blood

Component
s of Blood

Components of Blood
Blood separates into two main
parts: plasma and formed
elements.
55% plasma
45% cells
99% RBCs
< 1% WBCs
and platelets

Blood Plasma
Plasma, which makes up 50
65% of the total volume of blood,
is a straw-colored liquid
containing water (90%) and
solids (10%).
The solids in plasma include
inorganic salts and organic
substances such as antibodies,
hormones, vitamins, enzymes,

Blood Plasma

Blood Plasma
0ver 90% water
7% plasma proteins
created in liver
confined to bloodstream

albumin
maintain blood osmotic pressure

globulins (immunoglobulins)
antibodies bind to foreign
substances called antigens
form antigen-antibody complexes

fibrinogen
for clotting

2% other substances
electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, gases, waste
products

Formed Elements
The non-plasma, or cellular,
portion of blood is composed of
red blood cells, white blood
cells, and platelets.
From left to
right: Red
blood cell
(erythrocyte);
Platelet
(thrombocyte);
White blood
cell

Photo from U. S. Federal Government courtesy of Wikipedia.

Formed Elements of Blood

Red blood cells (erythrocytes)
White blood cells (leukocytes)
granular leukocytes
neutrophils
eosinophils
basophils

agranular leukocytes
lymphocytes = T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells
monocytes

Platelets (special cell fragments)

19-13
Tortora & Grabowski 9/e 2000 JWS

Red Blood Cells or

Erythrocytes
Responsible
for carrying
oxygen from the lungs to
various body tissues.
Biconcave disk -8
microns

increased surface
area/volume ratio
flexible shape for narrow
passages
no nucleus or other

Red Blood Cells or

Erythrocytes
Contain oxygen-carrying protein
haemoglobin that gives blood its
red color
1/3 of cells weight is hemoglobin

Normal RBC count

male 5.4 million/drop ---- female 4.8
million/drop
new RBCs enter circulation at 2
million/second
19-16
Tortora & Grabowski

Haemoglobin

Globin protein consisting of 4 polypeptide chains

One heme pigment attached to each
polypeptide chain
each heme contains an iron ion (Fe +2) that can
combine reversibly with one oxygen molecule 19-17

Transport of O2, CO2 and Nitric

Oxide
Each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4
oxygen molecules from lungs to tissue cells
Hemoglobin transports 23% of total CO 2
waste from tissue cells to lungs for release
combines with amino acids in globin portion
of Hb

The air pollutant carbon monoxide (CO)

combines more readily with hemoglobin
than does oxygen, resulting in oxygen
deprivation and possible death.

RBC Life Cycle

RBCs live only 120 days
wear out from bending to fit through capillaries
no repair possible due to lack of organelles

Worn out cells removed by fixed

macrophages in spleen & liver
Breakdown products are recycled

Tortora & Grabowski 9/e 2000

Red blood cells are

produced in the red
marrow of bones.

Anemia is a condition caused by

low levels of red blood cells and
hemoglobin.
Anemia can be caused by the
following:
Loss of blood due to injury,
Infestations of blood-sucking
parasites, or
Low levels of red cell
production due
to poor

Hemoconcentration is a
condition in which there is an
above normal level of red blood
cells.
Hemoconcentration is normally
caused by dehydration (loss of
body fluid), which can be the
result of vomiting, diarrhea, or
any chronic disease
characterized by high body

Hematocrit
Percentage of blood occupied by
RBCs
Female normal range
38 - 46% (average
42%)
Male normal range
40 - 54% (average
46%)

Techniques of Blood
Sampling
Venipuncture
from vein with hypodermic needle &
syringe - median cubital vein
Why not stick an artery?

less pressure. closer to the

surface

Finger or heel stick

common technique for diabetics
-monitor daily blood sugar
method used for infants

Blood Doping
Injecting previously stored
RBCs before an athletic event
more cells available to deliver oxygen to
tissues

Dangerous
increases blood viscosity
forces heart to work harder
Banned by Olympic committee

Blood platelets
Blood platelets, or
thrombocytes, are ovalshaped discs that are formed in
the bone marrow.
Blood platelets help prevent
blood loss from injuries to blood
vessels by forming clots (white

Platelets may secrete a

substance that causes the clot
to contract and solidify.
Platelets may also secrete a
substance that causes an
injured vessel to constrict at
the injury.

The White Blood Cells

(leukocytes)
White blood cells have nuclei, are
fewer in number than RBCs, with
5,000 10,000 cells per mm3, and
defend against disease.
Leukocytes are divided into granular
and agranular based on
appearance.

Granulocytes
Contain granules within the
cytoplasm. They contain enzymes
and proteins that defend the body
against microbes
Granulocytes
include:
Neutrophils,
Eosinophils, and
Basophils.

Neutrophils produced by bone

marrow, neutrophils fight disease
by migrating to the point of
infection, absorbing bacteria, and
destroying them.

Neutrophil (purple) migrating through

tissue to engulf bacteria through
phagocytosis.

Neutrophils dissolve
dead tissue resulting
in a semi-liquid
material called pus.
Courtesy of Wikipedia.

Abscess a concentrated area of

Eosinophils - a type of
granulocyte that plays a role in
combating infection by
parasites, as well as, impacting
allergies and asthma.
They contain most
of the histamine
protein in the blood,
which is an
indication of allergic

Images courtesy of Wikipedia.

Basophils rare granulocytes

that are responsible for the
symptoms of allergies,
including inflammation.
Basophils

Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

Agranulocytes
Leukocytes that contain very
little, if any, granules. They are
produced by the lymph nodes,
spleen, thymus, and other
lymphoid tissue.
Two types of agranulocytes:
Lymphocytes, and

Lymphocytes agranulocytes
that produce and release
antibodies at site of infections
to fight disease.
Lymphocytes also
produce antibodies
that allow an animal
to build up immunities
to a particular disease.

Image from U. S. Federal Government courtesy of

Wikipedia.

Monocytes are agranulocytes

that absorb disease-producing
materials, such as bacteria that
cause tuberculosis, through
phagocytosis.
Unlike neutrophils,
monocytes do not
produce pus.
Monocytes join body tissue to
form larger, disease-absorbing

Macrophage engulfing
bacteria
Monocytes
can
differentiate
into
macrophage
s that
phagocytize
microbes and
stimulate
other cells to

When bacterial infections

occur, the number of white
blood cells normally increases.
When viral infections occur,
the number of white blood cells
normally decreases.
Therefore, the concentration of
white blood cells can help
diagnose disease.

Coagulation
Blood clotting is called
coagulation and is important
in reducing blood loss caused
by injury and in healing the
injury.

Fibrin is a thread-like mass

produced by fibrinogen
(fibrous protein in blood) and
thrombin.
Fibrin holds the red blood
cells, white blood cells, and
platelets together to form a

Vitamin K helps maintain

Antithromboplastin and
antithrombin, which are
two substances that prevent
blood from clotting within
the circulatory system.

BLOOD TYPES
Blood types are classified based
on certain antigens and
antibodies found in blood.
In humans there are a total of 29
blood group systems based on
antigens on the surface of the red
blood cells, but the ABO and
Rhesus factor are the commonly
used groups to determine blood type.

AB0 blood grouping system

Blood group A

If you belong to the blood

group A, you have A
Blood group
B
antigens
on the surface
of
If you
belong
blood
your
RBCs
andto
B the
antibodies
youplasma.
have B
ingroup
your B,
blood
antigens on the surface of

Blood group AB

If you belong to the blood

group AB, you have both A

and
B
antigens
on
the
surface

of your RBCs and no A or B

antibodies at all in your blood

Blood group O
plasma.
If you belong to the blood
group O (null), you have
neither A or B antigens on the
surface of your RBCs but you

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/types.cfm

Human ABO Blood Types

Image courtesy of Wikipedia.

How common is your blood

type?
46.1%
38.8%
11.1%
3.9%

Blood Transfusions
A blood transfusion is a
procedure in which blood is
given to a patient through an
intravenous (IV) line in one of
the blood vessels.
Done
to replace blood lost during
surgery
or a serious injury.
if a persons body can't make

Blood Transfusions
Who can
blood?

give

you

People with TYPE O- blood

Universal Donors, because
they can give blood to any
blood type.
People with TYPE AB+ blood
Universal
Recipients,
because they can receive any
blood type.
Rh + Can receive + or -

Universa
l Donor

Universa
l

Why do individuals produce

antibodies to antigens they do
not have?
The "A and "B" antigens are also
produced by some plants and
microorganisms. Thus, individuals
who do not recognize one or more of
these antigens as "self" will
produce antibodies against the plant
or microbial antigens.

AUTOSOMAL
CHROMOSOME
A

Sara

The alleles for Blood

group are in the same
place on the
chromosome 9.
However the genes
have a different code
giving the different
blood group

one alleles from Mustafa and

one from Sara.

B
Mustaf
a

Possible Blood group

Genotypes
Parent
Allele
A
B
O

Possible Blood group Genotypes

Parent
Allele

AA

AB

AO

AB

BB

BO

AO

BO

OO

The ABO blood groups

The most important in assuring a safe blood
transfusion.
The table shows the four ABO phenotypes ("blood
groups") present in the human population and the
genotypes that give rise to them.
Bloo
d
Grou
p

Antigen
s on
RBCs

A
B
AB
O

A
B
A and B
Neither

Antibodies in
Serum
Anti-B
Anti-A
Neither
Anti-A and anti-B

Genotype
s
AA orAO
BB orBO
AB
OO

Why group A blood must

never be given to a group B
person?
Giving someone blood from the wrong ABO group
could be fatal.
The anti-A antibodies in group B attack group A
cells and vice versa.
Blood group O negative is a different story. WHY?

ANS.
The red blood cells from the donated
blood will clump or agglutinate.
The agglutinated red cells can clog
blood vessels and stop the
circulation of the
blood to various
parts of the body.
The agglutinated red blood cells also
crack and its contents leak out in the
body.
The red blood cells contain

Rhesus (Rh) Factors

Well, it gets more complicated here,
because there's another antigen to be
considered - the Rh antigen.
Rh

antigens are transmembrane proteins

with loops exposed at the surface of red blood
cells. The most significant Rh antigen is
the D antigen.
Scientists study Rhesus monkeys and
these blood proteins were discovered.
This protein is also present in the blood of

Rhesus (Rh) Factors

The presence of the protein,
or lack of it, is referred to as
the Rh (for Rhesus) factor.
If your blood does contain
the protein - Rh positive
(Rh+).
If your blood does not
contain the protein - Rh
85% of the population
is RhD positive, the
negative
(Rh-).
other 15% of the population is running around
with RhD negative blood.

Do you know which blood

group you belong to?
According to above blood grouping
systems, you can belong to either
of following 8 blood groups:

A person with Rh- blood can develop Rh antibodies

in the blood plasma if he or she receives blood from
a person with Rh+ blood, whose Rh antigens can
trigger the production of Rh antibodies.

A person with Rh+ blood can receive blood from

a person with Rh- blood without any problems.

Safe Blood
Transfusion

Why is an Rh incompatibility so
dangerous when ABO incompatibility
is not during pregnancy?
Most anti-A or anti-B antibodies are of the IgM class
(large molecules) and these do not cross the placenta.
In fact, an Rh/type O mother carrying an Rh+/type
A, B, or AB foetus is resistant to sensitisation to the
Rh antigen.
Her anti-A and anti-B antibodies destroy any foetal
cells that enter her blood before they can elicit anti-Rh
antibodies in her.

Rh incompatibility during pregnancy

(cont.)
This phenomenon has led to an effective
preventive measure to avoid Rh sensitisation.
Shortly after each birth of an Rh+ baby, the
mother is given an injection of anti-Rh
antibodies (or Rhogam).
These passively acquired antibodies destroy
any foetal cells that got into her circulation
before they can elicit an active immune
response in her.

The ABO Blood Group System

Laboratory
Determination of the ABO
System

Illustration of the forward and reverse

grouping reaction patterns of the ABO
groups using a blood group tile

http://www.bh.rmit.edu.au/mls/subjects/abo/resources/genetics1.htm

Blood
Group

AB

Antigens

Antibodies

Can give
blood to

Can
receive
blood from

Blood
Group

Antigens

Antibodies

Can give
blood to

Can
receive
blood from

AB

A and B

None

AB

AB, A, B, O

A and AB

A and O

B and AB

B and O

None

A and B

AB, A, B, O

Which individuals are

universal donors and universal
receivers?
People with blood group 0 Rh are called "universal donors"
and people with blood group AB
Rh+ are called "universal
receivers."