ICS253 161 1 Foundations Logic Proofs S 1 1 1 4 PI

ICS 253: Discrete Structures I
The Foundations: Logic and Proofs
ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61
The Foundations : Logic and Proofs
Acknowledgement
The
material in these slides are based on:

K. H. Rosen,
Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications,
Seventh Edition (Global Edition Adapted by
Kamala Krithivasan), McGraw-Hill, 2013.
Chapter 1, Sections 1 6, 8
Slides of Dr. Wasfi Al-Khatib and Dr. Husni Al-Muhtaseb
And other internet resources
The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 2

Part I:
Propositional
Logic (S1.1)
Applications
of Propositional Logic (S1.2)
Propositional
Equivalences (S1.3)
Part II:
Predicates
Nested
Rules
and Quantifiers (S1.4)
Quantifiers (S1.5)
of Inference (S1.6)
Introduction
to Proofs (S1.8)
Section 1.1: Propositional Logic
Traditionally, logic distinguishes valid and invalid

arguments (2-valued logic).
Propositional Logic is the logic of compound statements
built from simpler statements using so-called Boolean
connectives.
Mathematical Logic is a tool for working with compound
statements. It includes:
A formal language for expressing them.
A concise notation for writing them.
A methodology for objectively reasoning about their truth or falsity.
It is the foundation for expressing formal proofs in all branches of
mathematics.
Section 1.1: Propositional Logic

Some applications in computer science:
Design
of digital electronic circuits.
Expressing
Queries
conditions in programs.
to databases & search engines.
Definition of a Proposition
Definition: A proposition (denoted p, q, r, ) is
a
statement (i.e., a declarative sentence)
with some definite meaning, (not vague or ambiguous)

having
a truth value thats either true (T) or false
(F)
it is never both, neither, or somewhere in between!
Propositional Logic
Examples:
A proposition
is a declarative statement that is

either true or false
1. Dr. Wasfi holds a Ph.D. in arts.
2. KFUPM is either a big University or a small University.
3. Do you have a van?
4. 82 = 16.
5. I will go fishing tomorrow.
6. Do not drive while you are asleep.
7. X 8 = 12
Compound Propositions
Compound
propositions are formed from single

propositions using logical operators
Negation
NOT
Conjunction
AND
Disjunction
OR
Exclusive or
XOR
Implication
IMPLIES
Bi-conditional
IFF
An
operator or connective combines one or more operand

expressions into a larger expression.
Propositional
or Boolean operators operate on propositions

(or their truth values) instead of on numbers.
Truth Tables
A truth
table displays the relationship between the

truth values of propositions
Usually we are interested in knowing the compound truth
value of ALL possible truth values of the input
propositions
Truth table for negation p

P: I am going to town
P: I am not going to town;
: It is not the case that I am going to town;
p
T
F
p
F
T
Slide # 10
Truth Table for Conjunction p q

Q: It is going to rain
PQ: I am going to town and it is going to rain.
p
pq
Slide # 11
Truth Table for Disjunction p q

P Q: I am going to town or it is going to rain.
p
pq
Slide # 12
Truth Table for Exclusive Or p q

P Q: Either I am going to town or it is going to
rain.
p
pq
Slide # 13
Translating English Sentences into Logical Expressions

Q
14 pp 14: For each of these sentences, determine

whether an inclusive or an exclusive or is intended.
Explain your answer
a. Experience with C++ or Java is required
b. Lunch includes soup or salad
c. To enter the country, you need a passport or a voter
registration card
d. Publish or perish
Slide # 14
Truth Table for Implication p q

P Q: If I am going to town then it is going to
rain.
Note: The implication is false only when P is true
and Q is false!
P = premise, hypothesis, antecedent
Q = conclusion, consequence
Slide # 15
Truth Table for Implication p q

p
pq
The
implication is false only when P is true and Q

is false!
Slide # 16
Implication p q
Implication
is expressed in many ways
If p then q
p is sufficient for q
a sufficient condition for q is p
q is necessary for p
a necessary condition for p is q
p only if q
If p, q
p implies q
q whenever p
q when p
q if p
q unless p
q follows from p
Slide # 17
Implication p q
Discuss
the validity of the following statements:
If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5

If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 6
Note
that if then in programming languages is

different from the one used in logic.
Slide # 18
Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse

p
q
If it is raining, then the home team wins
q p
is the Converse of p q
If the home team wins, then it is raining

q p is the Contrapositive of p q
If the home team does not win, then it is not
raining
p q is the Inverse of p q
If it is not raining, then the home team does not win
N.B. Only the contrapositive is equivalent to the original
statement.
Slide # 19
Truth Table for Bi-conditional p q

if and only if, iff
Example:
P - I am going to town,
Q - It is going to rain
P Q: I am going to town if and only if it is going to rain.
Note: Both P and Q must have the same truth value.
p
pq
Slide # 20
Precedence of Logical Operators
Slide # 21
Logic and Bit Operations

Computers
A bit
represent information using bits
string is a sequence of zero or more bits.
0 represents F and 1 represents T

Bit operations are carried out in exactly the same manner
as their corresponding logic operations.
Evaluate
0001110001 1001001000
Slide # 22

Part I:
Propositional Logic (S1.1)
Applications of Propositional Logic (S1.2)
Propositional Equivalences (S1.3)
Part II:
Predicates and Quantifiers (S1.4)
Nested Quantifiers (S1.5)
Rules of Inference (S1.6)
Introduction to Proofs (S1.8)
Slide # 23
Section 1.2: Applications of Propositional Logic

Translating
System
English Sentences
Specifications
Boolean
Searches
Logic
Puzzles
Logic
Circuits
Slide # 24
Q8 pp 13: Let p, q, and r be the propositions

p :You get an A on the final exam.
q :You do every exercise in this book.
r :You get an A in this class
Write these propositions using p, q, and r and logical connectives (including

negations).
a) You get an A in this class, but you do not do every exercise in this book.
a) p q
b) You get an A on the final, you do every exercise in this book, and you get an A in
b)p q
this class.
c) To get an A in this class, it is necessary for you to get an A on the final.
c) r p
d) You get an A on the final, but you dont do every exercise in this book;
nevertheless, you get an A in this class.
d)p q
e) Getting an A on the final and doing every exercise in this book is sufficient for
getting an A in this class.
e) (p q
f ) You will get an A in this class if and only if you either do every exercise in this
book or you get an A on the final.
r
f) r (q
Slide # 25

You
cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under

4 feet tall unless you are older than 16 years old
q: you can ride the roller coaster
r: you are under 4 feet tall
s: you are older than 16 years old
(r s) q
Slide # 26
Group Activity
System
Specifications
Or
Logic
Puzzles
Slide # 27
System Specifications
System
specifications should be consistent, i.e. not

contain conflicting requirements
i.e. all requirements are true
(Q
5 pp 21).
The router can send packets to the edge system only if it

supports the new address space.
For the router to support the new address space, it is
necessary that the latest software release be installed.
The router can send packets to the edge system if the
latest software release is installed.
The router does not support the new address space.
Slide # 28
(Q5 pp21).
1. The router can send packets to the edge
system (S) only if it supports the new
address space (N).
2. For the router to support the new
address space(N), it is necessary that
the latest software release be installed
(L).
1. SN
2. N L
3. The router can send packets to the edge

system (S) if the latest software release
is installed (L).
3. L S
4. The router does not support the new

address space (N).
4. N
Slide # 29
(Q5 pp21).
N true then N is F
1. SN
If N is F then S should be F for 1 to be true
2. N L
Since N is F then 2 is True, L could be T or F
3. L S
Since S is F then we take L to be F
Hence, Consistent
Slide # 30
Example on Logic Puzzles
In [Sm78] Smullyan posed many puzzles about an island that has two
kinds of inhabitants, knights, who always tell the truth, and their
opposites, knaves, who always lie.
A says At least one of us is a knave and B says nothing.
Let P(x): x is a knight
and
P(x): x is a knave
Suppose A is a knave: P(A) T

What A says must be false
Contradiction
P(A) P(B) F
Check:
P(A) P(B) T P(B) T
Suppose A is a knight and what A says
must be true.
P(A)
P(A) P(B)
P(B)
A is a knight and B is a knave.
Slide # 31
Example on Logic Puzzles

You encounter two people A and B. What are A and B if
A says "B is a knight" and
B says "The two of us are opposite types"?
Suppose A is a knight, so
P(A) T
P(B) T
Since "The two of us are opposite types
P(A) P(B) P(A) P(B) T since P(B) is T
But if P(A) and P(B) then
P(A) P(B) P(A) P(B) F
Suppose A is a knave
So P(B) is F so
P(A) P(B) P(A) P(B) F
So they are both knaves
Slide # 32
Logic Circuits
Basic
An
Logic Gates
Example Combinatorial Circuit
Slide # 33
Logic Circuits (Individual Activity)

Q
: Find the output of each of these combinatorial circuits
Q:
Construct a combinatorial circuit using inverters, OR

gates, and AND gates that produces the output (p r)
( q r) from input bits p, q, and r.
Slide # 34

Part I:
Part II:
Slide # 35
Section 1.3: Propositional Equivalences
Tautology: A compound proposition that is

always true, regardless of the truth values of the
single/simple propositions in it.
Propositions p and q are called logically equivalent if

pq is a tautology, denoted by p q
Contradiction: A compound proposition that is

always false.
Contingency: Neither a tautology nor a

contradiction
Slide # 36
Example
Show that the following proposition is a

tautology:
(pq) p q
pq (pq) p q p q
(pq)
p q
Slide # 37
38
Logical Equivalences (Individual Activity)

Using
truth tables, show that

(p q) (pq)
Some Useful Equivalences (1)

pT p
pF p
pT T
Identity
Laws
Domination
pF F
pp p
pp p
pq qp
Laws
Idempotent
Laws
Commutative
pq qp
(p) p
Laws
Double Negation Law

Slide # 39

(pq)r p(qr)
Associative
(pq)r p(qr)
Laws
(pq) pq
DeMorgan
(pq) pq
Laws
p(qr) (pq)(pr)
Distributive
p(qr) (pq)(pr)
Laws
p p T
p p F
(p q) (pq)
p (pq) p
Negation
Laws
Absorption
Laws
Slide # 40

pq pq
pq qp
pq pq
p q (p q)
(p q) p q
(p q) (p r) p (q r)
(p r) (q r) (p q) r
(p q) (p r) p (q r)
(p r) (q r) (p q) r
Slide # 41

p q (p q) (q p)
pq pq
p q (p q) ( p q)
(p q) p q
Slide # 42
Why Know These Equivalences?
Instead of using truth tables, we can use these

equivalences to arrive to the same conclusion
Any good reasons for not using truth tables?
Slide # 43
Examples
Show that
1.
(p(pq)) (p q)
2. (pq)r is not equivalent to p(q r)

1. ((pp) (pq))
( T (pq))
( pq)
2.
F,T,F will yield different answers
Slide # 44
Examples
3. Show that
(pq) (pq) (p q)
(p q) (p q) [(p q) p] [(p q) q]
[(p p) (q p)] [(p q) (q q)]
[(T (q p)] [(p q) T]
(q p) (p q) (p q) (q p)
(pq)
(distribute and continue)
Slide # 45

Part I:
Part II:
Slide # 46
Section 1.4: Predicates and Quantifiers

Propositional
logic (Sections 1.1 and 1.2) cannot

adequately express the meaning of statements in
mathematics and in natural language.
E.g., suppose that we know that
Every student at KFUPM has a computer account.
Are there any rules in propositional logic that can make
us conclude the truth of the statement that
Ahmad, who is a student at KFUPM, has a computer
account
Slide # 47
Predicates
Predicates: propositions which contain variables

Once value(s) has/have been assigned to the
variable(s), the predicate becomes a proposition.
Examples
P(x) x > 1
\\ P is called a propositional function
Q(x,y) x = y 5
R(x,y,z) z > x y
if P(x) then
x = x - 1;
else
x = x2;
end if;
Slide # 48
Examples
Let
P(x) denote the statement (x>3).
What are the truth values of P(4) and P(2)?

Let
Q(x, y) denote the statement x = y + 3.
What are the truth values of Q(1,2) and Q(3,0)?
Slide # 49
Quantifiers
Universal quantification of P(x) is the proposition

P(x) is true for all values of x in the universe
of discourse (domain of x)
x P(x)
Example: Let P(x) be the statement x + 1 > x and

the domain of x consists of all real numbers.
What is the truth value of x P(x)?
Slide # 50
Quantifiers
Existential quantification of P(x) is the

proposition:
There exists an element x in the universe of
discourse (domain of x) such that P(x) is true
x P(x)
Example: Let P(x) be the statement x > 3 and the

domain of x consists of all real numbers.
What is the truth value of x P(x)?
Slide # 51
Quantifiers
Uniqueness
quantifier of P(x) is the proposition
that
there exists a unique element x, in the
of x, such that P(x) is true,
domain
!x P(x) or 1x P(x)
P(x)
is true for one and only one x in the universe

of discourse.
Slide # 52
REMEMBER!
A predicate
is not a proposition until all variables

have been bound either by quantification or
assignment of a value!
Slide # 53
Examples
Express the following statement using proper

quantification
Every student in this class has studied calculus
Slide # 54
Question 7 pp 50
P(x) x can speak Russian,Q(x) x knows
C++
For the universe of discourse all students at
your school
1.There is a student at your school who can 1. x (P(x) Q(x))
speak Russian and who knows C++
2.There is a student at your school who can 2. x (P(x) Q(x))
speak Russian but who doesnt know C++
3.Every student at your school either can
speak Russian or knows C++
3. x (P(x)Q(x))
4.No student at your school can speak
Russian or knows C++
4. !x (P(x) Q(x))
x (P(x)Q(x))
Slide # 55
Truth of Quantifiers
Statement
When True?
When False?
x P(x)
x P(x)
Slide # 56
Truth of Quantifiers
Statement
x P(x)
x P(x)
When True?
When False?
There is an x for
P(X) is true for
which P(x) is
every X
false
There is an x
P(X) is false for
for which P(x)
every X
is true
Slide # 57
Precedence of Quantifiers and Logical Operators
Operator
Precedence
Slide # 58
Example
quantifiers and have higher precedence
than all logical operators from propositional
calculus.
The
E.g., x P(x) Q(x)

means..
does not mean
It means
(x P(x)) Q(x)
Does not mean
x (P(x) Q(x))
Slide # 59
Binding Variables
The
occurrence of a variable x is bound iff a value

is assigned to x or when a quantifier is used on x.
Otherwise, it is called free.
Example: x (x + y) = 1; x is bound, y is free.
Slide # 60
Logical Equivalences Involving Quantifiers

Statements
involving predicates and quantifiers are

logically equivalent if and only if they have the
same truth value no matter which predicates are
substituted into these statements and which domain
of discourse is used for the variables in these
propositional functions.
ST
indicate that two statements involving predicates and

quantifiers are logically equivalent.
Example: x(P(x) Q(x) ) and xP(x) xQ(x)
Slide # 61

Q
29 pp 52: Establish these logical equivalences,

where x does not occur as a free variable in A.
Assume that the domain is nonempty.
(x P(x)) A x (P(x) A )
Prove that each side implies the other. and

hold.
If A is
T, then the LHS And RHS become equal to
true.
If A is
false, both become equal to x P(x)
Slide # 62

Q:
Establish these logical equivalences, where x

does not occur as a free variable in A. Assume that
the domain is nonempty.
a) (xP(x)) A x(P(x) A)
b) (xP(x)) A x(P(x) A)
Slide # 63
Negation
x P(x) x P(x)
x P(x) x P(x)
These are called De Morgans Laws for Quantifiers
Find the negation of

1. There is an honest politician
x ( x2 > x )
x H(x)
2. x (x2 x)
x (x2 x)
Slide # 64
Example Q 13 pp 51
Translate in two ways each of these statements into logical expressions
using predicates, quantifiers, and logical connectives. Let the domain
consist of the students in your class and
a. Someone in your class can speak Hindi
b. Everyone in your class is friendly
e. No student in your class has taken a course in logic programming
Let: C(x) = x is in my class; H(x) = x can speak Hindi; F(x)= x is

friendly
a. x (C(x) and H(x)),
x H(x)
b. x (C(x) F(x)),
x F(x)
e. x (C(x) and L(x)) x(C(x) or L(x))

x(C(x)L(x))
Slide # 65
Example Q 18 pp 51
Translate in two ways each of these statements into logical expressions
using predicates , quantifiers, and logical connectives.
a. Something is not in the correct place
b. All tools are in the correct place and are in excellent condition
c. Everything is in the correct place and in excellent condition
d. Nothing is in the correct place and is in excellent condition
e. One of your tools is not in the correct place, but it is in excellent
condition
Let: T(x): x is a tool; P(x): x is in the correct place;

Q(x): x is in excellent condition
x ( P(x))
x(T(x) P(x) and Q(x))
x(P(x) and Q(x))
x (P(x) or Q(x))
x(T(x) and P(x) and Q(x))
Slide # 66
Examples Q 19 pp 51
Suppose
that the domain of Q(x,y,z) consist of

triples x, y, z, where x=0, 1, or 2, y=0 or 1, and z=0
or 1. Write out these propositions using
disjunctions and conjunctions.
a. y Q(0,y,0)
b. x Q(x,1,1)
a: Q(0,0,0) and Q(0,1,0).
b. Q(0,1,1) or Q(1,1,1) or Q(2,1,1).
Slide # 67
Logic Programming
There
are some programming languages that are based

entirely on predicate logic!
The
most famous one is called Prolog.
A Prolog
program is a set of propositions (facts) and

(rules) in predicate logic.
The
input to the program is a query proposition.

Want to know if it is true or false.
The
Prolog interpreter does some automated deduction to

determine whether the query follows from the facts.
Slide # 70
Facts in Prolog
A fact
in Prolog represents a simple, non-compound
proposition in predicate logic.

e.g., John likes Mary
can be written Likes(John, Mary) in predicate logic.
can be written likes(john, mary). in Prolog!
Lowercase symbols must be used for all constants

and predicates,
Uppercase is reserved for variable names.
Slide # 71
Rules in Prolog
A rule
in Prolog represents a universally quanitifed

proposition of the general form
x: [y P(x,y)]Q(x),
where x and y might be compound variables
x=(z,w) and P,Q compound propositions.
In
Prolog, this is written as the rule:
q(X) :- p(X,Y). Variables must be capitalized

i.e., the , quantifiers are implicit.
Example:
likable(X) :- likes(Y,X).
Slide # 72
Conjunction and Disjunction

Logical
conjunction is encoded using multiple

comma-separated terms in a rule.
Logical
disjunction is encoded using multiple
rules.
E.g.,
x [(P(x)Q(x))R(x)]S(x)
can be rendered in Prolog as:

s(X) :- p(X), q(X)
s(X) :- r(X)
Slide # 73
Deduction in Prolog
When
a query is input to the Prolog interpreter,
it searches its database to determine if the query can be

proven true from the available facts.
if so, it returns yes, if not, no.
If the query contains any variables, all values
that make the query true are printed.
Slide # 74
Simple Prolog Example

An
example input program:
likes (john, mary).

likes (mary, fred).
likes (fred, mary).
likable (X) :- likes (Y,X).
An
example query: ? likable(Z)
returns:
mary
fred
Slide # 75
Example
Facts
instructor(Wasfi, ics253)
instructor(Yahya, ics324)
instructor(Marwan,coe202)
enrolled(ahmed, ics253)
enrolled(adel, ics324)
enrolled(rida, coe202)
enrolled(osamah, coe202)
enrolled(rida, ics253)
enrolled(osamah, ics324)
enrolled(ahmed, coe202)
enrolled(adel, ics253)
Queries
The query Is ahmed instructor of ics324 ?,
instructor(ahmed , ics324)
The query Is osamah enrolled in coe202 ?,
enrolled(osamah, coe202)
The query who is enrolled in coe202 ?,
enrolled(X, coe202)
The query who teaches rida?,
teaches(X, rida)
Rule
Teaches(P, S) :- instructor(P, C), enrolled(S, C)
Slide # 76
Summary
Predicate logic notation & conventions
Conversions: predicate logic clear English
Meaning of quantifiers, equivalences
Simple reasoning with quantifiers
Slide # 77

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ICS 253: Discrete Structures I

The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs

material in these slides are based on:

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 2

The Foundations: Logic and Proofs

of Propositional Logic (S1.2)

and Quantifiers (S1.4)

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 3

Section 1.1: Propositional Logic

Traditionally, logic distinguishes valid and invalid

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 4

Section 1.1: Propositional Logic

of digital electronic circuits.

to databases & search engines.

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 5

statement (i.e., a declarative sentence)

with some definite meaning, (not vague or ambiguous)

a truth value thats either true (T) or false

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 6

is a declarative statement that is

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 7

propositions are formed from single

operator or connective combines one or more operand

or Boolean operators operate on propositions

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 8

table displays the relationship between the

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

The Foundations : Logic and Proofs Slide # 9

Truth table for negation p

Truth Table for Conjunction p q

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Truth Table for Disjunction p q

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Truth Table for Exclusive Or p q

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Translating English Sentences into Logical Expressions

14 pp 14: For each of these sentences, determine

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Truth Table for Implication p q

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Truth Table for Implication p q

implication is false only when P is true and Q

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

is expressed in many ways

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

the validity of the following statements:

If today is Friday, then 2 + 3 = 5

that if then in programming languages is

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse

If the home team wins, then it is raining

Truth Table for Bi-conditional p q

ICS253 - 1The Foundations: Logic and Proofs61

Precedence of Logical Operators