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WHAT IS ARGUMENT?
the term argument refers to a reasoned attempt to
convince the audience to accept a particular point
of view about a debatable topic.
argumentation represents a "reasoned attempt,"
that is, an effort based on careful thinking and
planning where the appeal is to the mind, the
intellect of the audience at hand. Why? The
answer to this is that one wants to "convince the
audience to accept a particular point of view.
The key concept here is "to convince the
audience," that is, you must make them believe
your position, accept your logic and evidence.

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PROPOSITION
this is the major statement of the argument and classically
will have at least three (3) major claims on which it is to be
built.
Example:
The negative image of the African American male can be
directly traced to the historic stereotyping of a racist white
mentality evidenced in motion pictures, in literature and in
popular American folklore.

Note here that the major statement is that the negative

image of the African American male can be directly traced to
the historic stereotyping of a racist white mentality. But to
develop this proposition, the person must show through
evidence (1) negative images in motion pictures, (2) negative
images in American literature, and (3) negative images of
African American males in popular American folklore.

What you want to keep in mind, irrespective of the position

you might be advancing, is to formulate a clearly stated
proposition. There must be no ambiguity about your

EVIDENCE IN ARGUMENTATION
To support your proposition, one must present evidence. There are
two (2) types of evidence used in argumentation: fact(s) and
opinion(s). Facts consist of items that can be verified or proven. There
are at least four (4) categories of facts:
1) Empirical Fact2) Analytical Fact3) Evaluative Fact4) Metaphysical Fact) The second type of evidence that can be utilized in an argument is
opinion. In this instance, we are not talking about your personal
opinion. Nor are we talking about the way you friend might feel about
the issue. That would surely be unacceptable in a court of law. Rather,
the type of opinion we deal with here is expert opinion -- the opinions
expressed by an established authority in the field. If the topic is child
abuse patterns, then one may wish to cite a child psychologist who
has published on the subject or the head of a group like Parents
Anonymous that has dedicated itself to reducing and/or eliminating
child abuse. The opinion(s) cited must be credible.

FALLACIOUS REASONING
A fallacy is best described as illogical reasoning. There are many
reasons why this can occur, but in argumentative we will single
out some of the more important fallacies in hopes that we will
memorize what they are, avoid them in your arguments, and be
able to spot them in the arguments presented by others.
Hasty generalization occurs when you come to a conclusion
based on too few examples or insufficient data. You might call
this "jumping to conclusions.
This type of fallacy will also involve labelling, when you are
attacking the personality of a person that involve with the issues.
Avoid this. It distracts from your argument and is dishonest.
Argumentum ad hominem. This occurs when you direct your
argument to the prejudices and instincts of the crowd, of the
mob, rather than dealing with the real issue(s). For example, in
speaking to a group of welfare recipients about their tenant
rights, you base your argument on the indignities they may have
suffered rather than educating them to the problem(s) at hand
and what they can do about these.

ANTICIPATING OBJECTIONS

All too often do we fall in love with our point of view to the extent
that we forget our own humanity -- that is, all humans will err. No
one can make a claim to absolute truth on an issue. One must
always contend with the shadow of a doubt.

then you must be conscious of the fact that your opponent may
have very valid objections to your proposition. You should try to
anticipate, to think of the possible objections that can be made
against your argument.

Not only have you, so to speak, stolen some of your opponent's

thunder, but you have also made a very positive impression on
your audience/your reader. For that audience is now saying to itself,
"Wow, this person has really done his/her homework!

The incorporation of these possible objections can occur all along the
development of your argument. They can appear in each and every
one of your support planks to your proposition and can then be
reiterated at the summary. And it is in the Summary, which is the term
used to refer to the conclusion of the argumentative writing, that one
wraps everything up in convincing the reader(s) of your point of view.

CLOSING STRATEGIES

You may wish to use a combination of these strategies as you

make your presentation of proof.

With the thought in mind that this paper carries sufficient

evidence, make certain to observe the guidelines for
documentation.

For those in the social sciences, there are both APA and ASA
guidelines that do exist and can be studied. The same applies
for those in the humanities with the Modern Language
Association.

SUMMARY:
There are four modes of discourse: narration, description, exposition, and
argumentation. Of the four, argumentation is unquestionably the primal form of
communication as it involves the fine art of persuasion as well. The argumentative
essay may also be referred to as the Assertion-with- Evidence essay. The person is
making an assertion, a statement that says, "This is so," which he or she then
begins to prove through evidence. That assertion is also known as the proposition
(i.e., the main idea of an argumentative essay). This proposition should have at least
three patterns evident within it by which the arguer will develop the argument.
Argument itself may be simply defined as "a reasoned attempt to convince the
audience to accept a particular point of view about a debateable subject or topic."
The evidence one uses in any argument may be divided into fact and expert opinion.
The evidence can and should take the forms of examples, details, illustrations,
statistics. When developing an argumentative essay, one has to always beware of
fallacies or "illogical reasoning." While there are many types of fallacies that can and
do exist in rhetoric, six (6) basic ones have been presented here for your review and
thinking -- hasty generalizations, stereotyping, begging the question, name calling,
evading the question, and argumentum ad hominem. In addition, the good
argumentative essay will always try to take into account what the opposition or
contrary position might have to say and include or address that within the paper.
Equally important to remember is that argument is a social process and for those who
engage in it, there is a commitment ot specific communica- tion rules: (1)
convention of bilaterality; (2) convention of self-risk; (3) the fairness doctrine; and
(4) the commitment to rationality. In realizing that argumentation is a social process,
the arguer is reminded to never forget the human factor -- that the audience
listening does have an emotional stake in the subject under debate or dispute.