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IndonesiaTeknik Geologi
Fakultas Teknologi Kebumian
dan Energi
Universitas Trisakti
LECTURE MATERIALS
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
Geophysical Methods
SEISMIC METHODS
Geophysical Methods
Passive methods: measure natural
properties or fields of the Earth, e.g.,
gravity, magnetic, radioactive, etc.
Active methods: perturb the natural
system and measures the response.
Artificial signals are introduced into the
earth and subsequently recorded after
being modified by the earth materials
Seismic Methods
Limitations
Resolution: the ability to separate two
features that very close together or, the
smallest change in input that will produce
a detectable change in output.
Noise: any unwanted signal, can be from
the instrument, uncontrollable conditions,
operator; noise can mask the contrast or
manifest as an uncertainty in the inversion
process.
SEISMIC WAVES
Seismic Waves
Snell's Law
These ray paths are simply drawn to be perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the
wave field at all times. As they interact with the boundary, these ray paths obey Snell's Law.
Snell's Law can be derived in a number of different ways, but the way it is usually described
is that the ray path that follows Snell's Law is the path by which the wave would take the least
amount of time to propagate between two fixed points.
Consider the refracted ray paths shown above. In our particular case, v2, the velocity of the
half space, is less than v1, the velocity of the layer. Snell's Law states that in this case, i2, the
angle between a perpendicular to the boundary and the direction of the refracted ray path,
should be smaller than i1, the angle between a perpendicular to the boundary and the
direction of the direct ray path. This is exactly the situation predicted by the wave fronts
shown in the figure above.
Wave fronts
and Ray paths
Ray paths Ray paths are nothing more than lines that show the direction that the seismic
wave is propagating. For any given wave, there are an infinite set of ray paths that could be
used. In the example shown above, for instance, a valid ray path could be any radial line drawn
from the source. We have shown only a few of the possible ray paths.
Wave front Wave fronts connect positions of the seismic wave that are doing the same
thing at the same time. In the example shown above, the wave fronts are spherical in shape.
One such wave front would be the sphere drawn through the middle of the dark blue area. This
surface would connect all portions of the wave that have the largest possible negative
amplitude at some particular time.
In principle and in practice, ray paths are equivalent to the directions of current flow, and wave
fronts are equivalent to the equipotential lines. They are also equivalent to field direction and
strength in magnetism.
Seismic Waves
Surface wave: considered noise
Body waves: P (compressional) and S (shear)
Velocity depends on the density of the layers;
increases with increasing density
Incident, reflected, and refracted rays
Ray gets deflected away from the normal
(lighter to a denser medium)
Critical angle: refracted wave travels along the
interface
Air
332
Water
1400-1500
Petroleum
1300-1400
Steel
6100
3500
Concrete
3600
2000
Granite
5500-5900
2800-3000
Basalt
6400
3200
Sandstone
1400-4300
700-2800
Limestone
5900-6100
2800-3000
Sand (Unsaturated)
200-1000
80-400
Sand (Saturated)
800-2200
320-880
Clay
1000-2500
400-1000
1500-2500
600-1000
Particle Motion
Other Characteristics
P(Compressional),
Primary, Longitudinal
Alternating
compressions
(pushes) and dilations
(pulls) which are directed
in the same direction as the
wave is propagating (along
the ray path); and therefore,
perpendicular to the wave
front.
Particle Motion
Other Characteristics
L,
Love, Surface
waves, Long
waves
R,
Rayleigh, Surface
waves, Long
waves, Ground
roll
Lecture 6
Seismic Reflections
Shot
Receiver
Seismic Record
Trough
+
Peak
Layer 1
Layer 2
Impedance
Increase
Layer 2
Layer 2
Layer 3
Layer 3
Layer 3
Layer 4
Layer 4
Impedance
Decrease
Impedance
Increase
Layer 1
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Increase in Impedance
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Decrease in Impedance
FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Predominantly
Shale
Predominantly
Sand
Predominantly
Shale
10 m
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Compression
A = Amplitude
= Wavelength
length, ft or m
P = Period
time
Dp = Pulse
Period = Time for the waveform
Duration
to travel 1 wavelength
time
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Basic Equations
1. P = 1 / f
2.
=V*P = V/
3. d = V * T / 2
where
P = Period
V = Velocity
f = Frequency d = distance (depth)
= Wavelength T = time
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Back to Basics
Seismic energy travels down and
is reflected off acoustic boundaries
Shot
Seismic
Record
Receiver
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Increase in
impedance
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
1.3
Increase in
impedance
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
1.4
Shot
Receiver
Reflection
Coefficients
High
C
O
N
V
O
L
U
T
I
O
N
I1 = 1 * V1
I2 =
* V2
I3 =
* V3
I4 =
* V4
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Pulse Seismic
Trace
FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Reflection
Coefficients
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Ideal Seismic
Pulse
Trace
FW
Schroeder
Typical Seismic
Pulse Trace
L 6 Seismic
Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficients
Minimum Phase
Causal (real no
motion before wave
arrives)
Front loaded
Peak arrival time is
frequency dependant
RC is at the first
displacement;
maximum displacement
(peak or trough) is
delayed by
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Types of Pulses
Reflection
Coefficients
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Zero Phase
Not Causal (not real,
since there is motion
before the wave
arrives)
Symmetric about RC
Peak arrival time is not
frequency dependant
Maximum peak-to-side
lobe ratio
RC is at the maximum
displacement (peak or
trough)
L 6 Seismic
FW
Schroeder
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Shot
Receiver
Layer 1
Layer 2
Boundary
FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Seismic Interface
Shale
Sand
I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below
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above
FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Seismic Interface
Shale
Sand
I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below
above
4320 - 3400
4300 + 3400
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Schroeder
0.119
L 6 Seismic
Seismic Interface
Shale
Carbonate
I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below
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above
FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Seismic Interface
Shale
Carbonate
I below I above
Reflection
=
Coefficient
I
+I
below
above
5460 - 3400
5460 + 3400
FW
Schroeder
0.232
L 6 Seismic
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Unconformities
Facies Changes
Coastal Plain
Foreshore/Upper Shoreface
Slope - Basin
Submarine Fan
Estuarine
Condensed Interval
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Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Multiples
Others
Stratal Surfaces
Unconformities
W
Facies Changes
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FW
Schroeder
L 6 Seismic
Reflection Seismic
Source
Receiver
Raw data
geology
seismic Section
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Seismic Refraction
Energy source: vibration created by a sledge
hammer blow or explosive in a drill hole
Wave propagation: spherical waves in a
homogeneous medium, wave fronts
Rays: perpendicular to wave fronts, shown on
diagrams
Geophone: device that detects vibrations
Seismograph: device that records the arrival
times
SEISMIC REFRACTION
SEISMIC REFRACTION
Shot Record
(travel-time curves superimposed)
Arrival Sequence
Geophones record the ground vibrations
(vertical motion) caused by wave propagation
Direct wave reaches first at the geophones
closer to the source
Head wave (refracted wave) reaches the the
geophones located farther away from the
source
Reflected waves are not the first in any
situation
Velocity Determination
Velocity = distance/ time
Slope = time/ distance = 1/V
Velocity = reciprocal of slope
Slope is a function of the velocity of the
layer alone (not thickness)
Changing the thickness will change the
distance at which head wave arrives first
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