EE 369

POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

Lecture 8
Transformers, Per Unit
Tom Overbye and Ross Baldick

Announcements
For lectures 8 to 10 read Chapter 3.
HW 6 is problems 5.14, 5.16, 5.19, 5.26, 5.31,
5.32, 5.33, 5.36; case study questions
chapter 5 a, b, c, d, is due Thursday, 10/6.
Power plant tour is 10/6.
Instead of coming to class, go to UT power
plant. Turn in homework at beginning of tour.
Homework 7 is 5.8, 5.15, 5.17, 5.24, 5.27,
5.28, 5.29, 5.34, 5.37, 5.38, 5.43, 5.45; due
10/20.
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Transformers Overview
Power systems are characterized by many
different voltage levels, ranging from 765 kV
down to 240/120 volts.
Transformers are used to transfer power
between different voltage levels.
The ability to inexpensively change voltage
levels is a key advantage of ac systems over dc
systems.
In this section well development models for the
transformer and discuss various ways of
connecting three phase transformers.

Ideal Transformer

First we review the voltage/current relationships

for an ideal transformer
no real power losses
magnetic core has infinite permeability
no leakage flux

Well define the primary side of the

transformer as the side that usually receives
power from a line etc, and the secondary as the
side that usually delivers power to a load etc:
primary is usually the side with the higher voltage,
but may be the low voltage side on a generator stepup transformer.

Ideal Transformer
Relationships
Note that I2 and I2
are in opposite directions

Assume we have flux m in magnetic material.

Then flux linking coil 1 having N1 turns is:

1 N1m , and similarly 2

dm
d 1
v1
N1
, v2
dt
dt
dm
v1
v2

dt
N1
N2

N 2m
d m
d 2

N2
dt
dt
V1
N1

a = turns ratio
V2
N2
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Current Relationships
To get the current relationships use ampere's law
with path around core having total length L:
mmf

HgdL

H L N1i1

N1i1

'
N 2i2

'
N 2i2

BL
'
N1i1 N 2i2

Assuming uniform flux density in the core

having area A, then B A
L
N1i1 N 2i2'
A

Current/Voltage
Relationships
If is infinite then 0 N1i1 N 2i2' . Hence
i1
N2

or
'
N1
i2

i1
N2 1

, where i2 i2'
i2
N1 a

I1 1
Then:
and:
I2 a
V1
I
1

1
0

V2
I
2

Impedance Transformation
Example

Example: Calculate the primary voltage and

current for an impedance load Z on the secondary

I 2 V2 / Z and substituting:
V1
I
1
V1 aV2

1 V2
I1
aZ

0

1
0

V2
V
2 Z

V1
2
a Z primary referred value of
I1
secondary load impedance

Real Transformers
Real transformers
have losses
have leakage flux
have finite permeability of magnetic core

Real power losses

resistance in windings (I2 R)
core losses due to eddy currents and
hysteresis
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Transformer Core losses

Eddy currents arise because of changing flux

Eddy currents are reduced by laminating the c

Hysteresis losses are proportional to area of B

and the frequency
These losses are
reduced by using
material with a
thin BH curve

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Effect of Leakage Flux

Not all flux is within the transformer core
1 l1 N1m , where l1 is the coil 1 leakage flux,

2 l 2 N 2m , where l 2 is the coil 2 leakage flux,

Assuming a linear magnetic medium we get
l1 @ Ll1i1

l 2 @ Ll 2i 2'

d m
di1
v1 r1i1 Ll1 N1
, including winding
dt
dt
resistance r1,
'

v2 r2i 2 Ll 2

di 2'

d m
N2
, including resistance r2 .
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dt
dt

Effect of Finite Core

Permeability
Finite core permeability means a non-zero mmf
is required to maintain m in the core
N1i1 N 2i2 R m ,
where R is the reluctance.
This effect is usually modeled as a magnetizing current
R m N 2
i1

i2
N1
N1
i1

N2
im
i2
N1

R m
where im
,
N1

modeled by resistance and inductance.

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Transformer Equivalent
Circuit
Using the previous
relationships, we can deriv

equivalent circuit model for the real transform

This model is further simplified by referring all

impedances to the primary side (and approximating
by swapping the referred elements and the shunts):
r2' a 2 r2
x2' a 2 x2

re r1 r2'
xe x1 x2'

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Simplified Equivalent Circuit

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Calculation of Model
Parameters
The parameters of the model are determined
based upon:
nameplate data: gives the rated voltages and power
open circuit test: rated voltage is applied to primary
with secondary open; measure the primary current
and losses (the test may also be done applying the
rated voltage to the secondary, calculating the
values, then referring the values back to the primary
side).
short circuit test: with secondary shorted, apply
(lower than rated) voltage to primary to get rated
primary current to flow; measure voltage and losses.
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Transformer Example
Example: A single phase, 100 MVA,
200/80 kV transformer has the following
test data:
open circuit: 20 amps, with 10 kW losses
short circuit: 30 kV, with 500 kW losses

Determine the model parameters.

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Transformer Example,
contd

From the short circuit test

I sc

100MVA
30 kV

500 A, Re jX e
60
200kV
500 A

2
2
Psc Re I sc
500 kW Re Psc / I sc
500,000 /(500) 2 2 ,

Hence X e 602 2 2 60
From the open circuit test
(Vrated )2 (200) 2 (kV) 2
Rc

4M
Poc
10 kW
Re jX e jX m

Vrated 200 kV

10,000
I oc
20 A

X m 10,000
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Residential Distribution
Transformers

Single phase transformers are commonly used

residential distribution systems. Most distribu
systems are 4 wire, with a multi-grounded, com
neutral.

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Per Unit Calculations

A key problem in analyzing power systems is the
large number of transformers.
It would be very difficult to continually have to refer
impedances to the different sides of the transformers

This problem is avoided by a normalization of all

variables.
This normalization is known as per unit analysis.

actual quantity
quantity in per unit
base value of quantity

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Per Unit Conversion

Procedure,
1 system, S
1. Pick a 1
VA base for the entire

2. Pick a voltage base for each different voltage

level, VB. Voltage bases are related by
transformer turns ratios. Voltages are line to
neutral.
3. Calculate the impedance base, ZB= (VB)2/SB
4. Calculate the current base, IB = VB/ZB
5. Convert actual values to per unit

Note, per unit conversion affects magnitudes,

the angles. Also, per unit quantities no longer
units (i.e., a voltage is 1.0 p.u., not 1 p.u. 20volts

Per Unit Solution Procedure

1. Convert to per unit (p.u.) (many
problems are already in per unit)
2. Solve
3. Convert back to actual as necessary

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Per Unit Example

Solve for the current, load voltage and load p

in the circuit shown below using per unit anal
with an SB of 100 MVA, and voltage bases of
8 kV, 80 kV and 16 kV, respectively.

Original Circuit
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Per Unit Example, contd

Z BLeft

82 (kV) 2

0.64
100MVA

Middle
ZB

Z BRight

802 (kV) 2

64
100MVA

162 (kV) 2

2.56
100MVA

Same circuit, with

values expressed
in per unit.
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Per Unit Example, contd

1.00
I
0.22 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 j 2.327
VL 1.00 0.22 30.8
p.u.
2

VL
SL

0.189 p.u.
Z
SG 1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.
VL I L*

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Per Unit Example, contd

To convert back to actual values just multiply
per unit values by their per unit base
V LActual 0.859 30.8 16 kV 13.7 30.8 kV
S LActual 0.1890 100 MVA 18.90 MVA
SGActual 0.2230.8 100 MVA 22.030.8 MVA
I BMiddle

100 MVA

1250 Amps
80 kV

Actual
I Middle

0.22 30.8 275 30.8

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Three Phase Per Unit

Procedure is very similar to 1 except we use
VA base, and use line to line voltage bases
1. Pick a 3 VA base for the entire system, S B3
2. Pick a voltage base for each different
voltage level, VB,LL. Voltages are line to line.
3. Calculate the impedance base

ZB

VB2, LL
S B3

( 3 VB , LN ) 2
3S 1B

VB2, LN
S 1B

Exactly the same impedance bases as with

single phase using

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Three Phase Per Unit, cont'd

4. Calculate the current base, IB
3
IB

S B3
3 S 1B
S 1B
1

IB
3 VB , LL
3 3 VB , LN VB , LN

Exactly the same current bases as with single

5. Convert actual values to per unit

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Three Phase Per Unit

Solve for theExample
current, load voltage and load
power in the previous circuit, assuming:
a 3 power base of300MVA,
andlinetolinevoltagebasesof13.8kV,138kVand27.6
kV(squarerootof3largerthanthe1examplevoltages)
thegeneratorisYconnectedsoitslinetolinevoltageis
13.8kV.

Convert to per unit

as before.
Note the system is
exactly the same!
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3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

1.00
I
0.22 30.8 p.u. (not amps)
3.91 j 2.327
VL 1.00 0.22 30.8
p.u.
2

VL
SL

0.189 p.u.
Z
SG 1.00 0.2230.8 30.8p.u.
*
VL I L

Again, analysis is exactly the same!

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3 Per Unit Example, cont'd

Differences appear when we convert back to act

VLActual 0.859 30.8 27.6 kV 23.8 30.8 kV
SLActual 0.1890 300 MVA 56.70 MVA
SGActual 0.2230.8 300 MVA 66.030.8 MVA
I BMiddle

300 MVA

1250 Amps
3 138 kV

Actual
I Middle

0.22 30.8 Amps 275 30.8

(same current!)

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