CHAPTER 1

POLAR COORDINATES &

VECTORS
BUM2123
APPLIED CALCULUS
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1.1 PARAMETRIC EQUATION

Suppose that a particle moves along a curve C in the
xy-plane in such a way that its x and y coordinates, as
functions of times are

x f (t )

y g (t )

The variable t is called the parameter for the

equations.
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EXAMPLE 1

Form the Cartesian equation by eliminate parameter t from

the following equations

x 2t

y 4t 2 1

Solution:

x
Given that x 2t , thus t
2
Then

x
y 4 1
2
x2 1

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EXAMPLE 2

Find the graph of the parametric equations

x t2 t

y 2t 1

Solution:
We plug in some values of t .

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EXAMPLE 13

Find the graph of the parametric equations

x cos t

y sin t

0 t 2

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1.2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL
COORDINATE SYSTEM

y
x
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EXAMPLE 1

Graph the following ordered

triples:
a.
b.

(3, 4, 5)
(2, -5, -7)

Distance Formula in
The distance

P1 Pbetween
2

P1 ( xand
1 , y1 , z1 )

P2 ( x2 , y2 , zis2 )
P1 P2 ( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 ) ( z 2 z1 )
2

EXAMPLE 2

Find the distance between (10, 20, 10) and

(-12, 6, 12).

Vectors in

A vector in R3 is a directed line segment (an arrow)

in space.

Given:
-initial point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
-terminal point Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 )
Then the vector PQ has the unique standard
component form

PQ x2 x1 , y2 y1 , z 2 z1

Standard Representation
of Vectors in the Space

The unit vector:

i 1in
,0,the
0 directions of the positive x-axis
points
j 0in,1,the
0 directions of the positive y-axis
points
points
k 0in,0the
,1 directions of the positive z-axis

i, j and k are called standard basis vector in R3.

Any vector PQ can be expressed as a linear combination of i, j and k

(standard representation of PQ)

PQ ( x2 x1 )i ( y2 y1 ) j ( z 2 z1 )k

with magnitude

PQ ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( y2 y1 ) 2 ( z 2 z1 ) 2

STANDARD REPRESENTATION OF A VECTOR IN R3

EXAMPLE 3

Find the standard representation of the vector PQ

with initial point P(-1, 2, 2) and terminal point
Q(3, -2, 4).

1.3 CYLINDER & QUADRIC

SURFACES
(1) Circular
Cylinder

x2 z 2 9
On the xz - plane the graph is a
circle of radius three.

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(2) Ellipsoid

x2 y2 z2
2 2 1
2
a
b
c

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(3)
Paraboloid

x
y
2 cz, c 0
2
a
b

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(5) Cone

x2 y2 z 2
2 2 0
2
a
b
c

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(3) Hyperboloid of One Sheet

x2 y2 z 2
2 2 1
2
a
b
c

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(4) Hyperboloid of Two Sheets

x2 y2 z 2
2 2 2 1
a
b
c

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(7) Hyperbolic Paraboloid

x2 y2
2 2 cz, c 0
a
b

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EXAMPLE 29

Sketch the graph of the following equations in 3-dimensions.

Identify each of the surface.

(i) 5 y 3 z 15
(ii) z 9 y

(iii) x 2 y 2 16
(iv) x y z 1
2

(v) z x 2 ( y 1) 2
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1.4 EQUATION OF LINES &

PLANES
Parametric Form of a
3
Line in

, z0 )
If L is a line that contains the point ( x0 , y0and
j ck
is parallel to the vector v ai ,bthen
L has
parametric form
x x0 at

y y0 bt

z z0 ct

Conversely, the set of all points ( x, y, z )

such a set of equations is a line that passes
) parallel to a
through the point ( x0 , yand
0 , z 0is
vector with direction numbers[ a, b, c]
.

that satisfy

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EXAMPLE 18

Find parametric equations for the line that

contains the point 1, 1, 2 and is parallel to the
vector v 3i 2 j 5k .
Find where this line passes through the
coordinate planes.
Solution:

The direction numbers are 3, 2, 5 and

x0 1, y0 1 and z 0 2, so the 1ine has the
parametric form
x 1 3t

y 1 2t

z 2 5t

continue solution:
*This 1ine wi11 intersect the xy-p1ane when z 0;
0 2 5t imp1ies t

2
5

If t 52 , then x 115 and y 95 . This is the point

11
9
, ,
5
5

0 .

*This 1ine wi11 intersect the xz-p1ane when y 0;

0 1 2t imp1ies t 12
If t 12 , then x 12 and z 92 . This is the point

1
2

, 0, 92 .

*This 1ine wi11 intersect the yz-p1ane when x 0;

0 1 3t imp1ies t
If t

, then y

and z

11

. This is the point 0,

1
11

3
3

Symmetric Form of a Line in

If L is a line that contains the point ( x0 , y0 , zand

0)
is parallel to the vector v ai bj ck
(A, B, and C are nonzero numbers), then the point
( x, y, z )is on L if and only if its coordinates satisfy

x x0
y y0
z z0

a
b
c

EXAMPLE 19

SYMMETRIC FORM OF THE

EQUATION OF A LINE IN R3

Find symmetric equations for the line L

through the points
A 2, 4, 3
and B 3, 1,1 .
Find the point of intersection with the
xy-plane.

Solution:

The required 1ine passes through A or B and

is para11e1 to the vector
AB 3 2, 1 4,1 3 1, 5, 4

@ i 5 j 4k

Thus, the direction numbers are 1, 5, 4 .

Let say we choose A as x0 , y0 , z0 .

x2 y 4 z 3
Then,

1
5
4

4 y z 3
The symmetric equation is x 2

5
4

continue solution:
This 1ine wi11 intersect the xy -p1ane when z 0;
3
4 y 3
x2
and

4
5
4
11
1
x
y
4
4
The point of intersection of the 1ine with the xy -p1ane is

11 1
, ,
4 4

0 .

CLASS ACTIVITY 1
1.

Find the parametric and symmetric equations for the

point 1, 0, 1 which is para11e1 to 3i 4 j.

2. Find the points of intersection of the 1ine

x4 y3

z 2 with each of the coordinate p1anes.

4
3R
3. Find two unit vectors para11e1 to the 1ine
3

x 1 y 2

z5
2
4

Line may Intersect, Parallel or Skew

Recall two lines in R2 must intersect if their slopes are

different (cannot be parallel)
However, two lines in R3 may have different direction
number and still not intersect. In this case, the lines are
said to be skew.

EXAMPLE 20

In problems below, tell whether the two lines are intersect,

parallel, or skew . If they intersect, give the point of
intersection.
(a ) x 3 3t , y 1 4t , z 4 7t ;

x 2 3t , y 5 4t , z 3 7t

1
x 2 4t , y 1 t , z 5t ;
(b)
2
x 3t , y 2 t , z 4 2t
x

3
y

1
z

4
x

2
y

3
z

2
(c)

2
1
1
3
1
1

Solution:
x 3 y 1 z 4
x 2 y 5 z 3
1. Let L1 :

and L2 :

3
4
7
3
4
7
L1 has direction numbers 3, 4, 7
and L2 has direction numbers 3, 4, 7 .

Since both 1ines have same direction numbers

(or 3, 4, 7 =t 3, 4, 7 , where t 1),
therefore they are para11e1 or coincide.
Obvious1y, L1 has point A 3,1, 4 and L2 has point B 2,5,3 .
AB i 4 j 7k , with the direction numbers 1, 4, 7 .

Because there is no 'a ' for which 1, 4, 7 a 3, 4, 7 ,

the 1ines are not coincide, but just para11e1.

Solution:
1
x 2 y 1 z 2
x y2 z4
2. Let L1 :

and L2 :

4
1
5
3
1
2
L1 has direction numbers 4,1,5

and L2 has direction numbers 3, 1, 2 .

Since there is no t for which 4,1,5 t 3, 1, 2 ,

the 1ines are not para11e1 or coincide, maybe skew or intersect.
Express the 1ines in parametric form
L1 : x 2 4t1 , y 1 t1 , z 12 5t1;
L2 : x 3t2 , y 2 t2 , z 4 2t2

continue solution:
Continue : 2
At an intersection point we must have
2 4t1 3t2
4t1 3t2 2
1 t1 2 t2
1
2

5t1 4 2t2

t1 t2 3
5t1 2t2

7
2

So1ving the first two equations simu1taneous1y,

t1 11 and t2 14 and since the so1ution is not
satisfy the third equation, so the 1ines are skew.

Solution:
x 3 y 1 z 4
x 2 y 3 z 2
3. Let L1 :

and L2 :

2
1
1
3
1
1
L1 has direction numbers 2, 1,1
and L2 has direction numbers 3, 1,1 .

Since there is no t for which 2, 1,1 t 3, 1,1 ,

the 1ines are not para11e1 or coincide, maybe skew or intersect.
Express the 1ines in parametric form
L1 : x 3 2t1 , y 1 t1 , z 4 t1 ;
L2 : x 2 3t2 , y 3 t2 , z 2 t2

continue solution:
Continue : 3
At an intersection point we must have
3 2t1 2 3t2

1 t1 3 t2

t1 1 and t2 1

4 t1 2 t2

Satisfy a11 of the equation,

then these two 1ines are intersect to each other.
The point of intersection is
x 3 2t1 3 2 1 1
y 1 t1 1 1 2

z 4 t1 4 1 3
1, 2,3

or x 2 3t2 , y 3 t2 , z 2 t2

CLASS ACTIVITY 2 :
In problems below, tell whether the two
lines are intersect, parallel, or skew. If
they intersect, give the point of
intersection.

x 6t , y 1 9t , z 3t ;
1. x 1 2t , y 4 3t , z t

x 1 2t , y 3t , z 2 t ;

2. x 1 t , y 4 t , z 1 3t
y 1 z 2 x 3 y 2 z 1

3. x
2
3
4
3
2

EQUATION FOR A PLANE

REMEMBER THAT
Theorem: The orthogonal vector
theorem

Nonzero vectors v and n are orthogonal

(or perpendicular) if and only if

v n 0
where n is called the normal vector.

EQUATION FOR A PLANE

Let say, we have a p1ane containing point Q x0 , y0 , z0 and
is orthogona1 (norma1) to the vector N Ai Bj Ck
So1ution:
If we have another any point P x, y, z in the p1ane, then
N.QP 0

N.QP Ai Bj Ck . x x0 i y y0 j z z0 k
A x x0 B y y0 C z z0

A x x0 B y y0 C z z0 0

Ax By Cz Ax0 By0 Cz0 0, as D Ax0 By0 Cz0 ,

Then Ax By Cz D 0

FORMS FOR THE EQUATION OF A

PLANE IN R3
N Ai Bj Ck
An equation for the plane with normal
that contains the point
has the
x0 , y0 , z0
following forms: A x x B y y C z z 0

0
0
0
Point-normal form:
Ax By Cz D 0

Standard form:
Ax By Cz D 0

Conversely,
aknormal vector to the plane
N Ai Bj C
is

EXAMPLE 21

EQUATION FOR A PLANE

Find an equation for the plane that
contains the point P and has the
normal vector N given in:
1. P 1,3,5 ; N 2i 4 j 3k
2. P 1,1, 1 ;

N i 2 j 3k

1.

P 1,3,5 ; N 2i 4 j 3k

Solution :
Point-Normal form
2 x 1 4 y 3 3 z 5 0
Standard form

2 x 1 4 y 3 3 z 5 0
2 x 2 4 y 12 3 z 15 0
2 x 4 y 3z 5 0

EQUATION FOR A PLANE

REMEMBER THAT..
Theorem: Orthogonality Property of The
Cross Product
3

R
If v and w are nonzero vectors
in
that are not multiples of one another,
then v x w is orthogonal to both v and
w
n vw

EXAMPLE 22

STANDARD FORM EQUATION OF

PLANE

Find the standard form equation

P 1, 2,1 , Q 0, 3, 2 ,
of a plane containing
R 1,1, 4
and

SOLUTION:

Hint :
What we need?
N?
Point x0 , y0 , z0 ?

N PQ PR
Since, a11 point P, Q and R
are points in the p1ane,
so just pick one of them !!

EXAMPLE 23

EQUATION OF A LINE ORTHOGONAL

TO A GIVEN PLANE
Find an equation of the line that passes through the point
Q(2,-1,3) and is orthogonal to the plane 3x-7y+5z+55=0

Hint :
Equation for 1ine; x x0 At , y y0 Bt , z z0 Ct ,
so, obvious1y, you just have to find
the va1ue of A, B and C.
and x0 , y0 , z0

N = Ai + Bj + Ck
(2, -1, 3)

CLASS ACTIVITY 3:
1.

Find an equation for the p1ane that contains the

point 2,1, 1 and is orthogona1 to the 1ine

2.

3.

x 3 y 1 z

.
3
5
2
Find a p1ane that passes through the point 1, 2, 1
and is para11e1 to the p1ane 2 x y 3 z 1.
x 1 y 1 z 2
Show that the 1ine

2
3
4
is para11e1 to the p1ane x 2 y z 6.

EXAMPLE 24

Equation of a Line Parallel to The

Intersection of Two Given Planes
Find the equation of a 1ine passing through 1, 2,3
that is para11e1 to the 1ine of intersection of the p1anes
3 x 2 y z 4 and x 2 y 3 z 5.

EXAMPLE 25

Equation of a Plane
Containing Two
Intersecting
Lines
Find the standard-form equation
of the p1ane
determined by the intersecting 1ines.
x 2 y 5 z 1
x 1 y z 16

and

3
2
4
2
1
5

EXAMPLE 26

Point where a Line

intersects with a Plane.
Find the point at which the 1ine with parametric
equations x 2 3t , y 4t , z 5 t intersects the
p1ane 4 x 5 y 2 z 18

INTERSECTING PLANE
The acute angle
between the planes :

cos

n1 n 2
n1 n 2

EXAMPLE 27

Find the acute angle of intersection between the

planes 2 x 4 y 4 z 6 and 6 x 2 y 3z 4

DISTANCE PROBLEMS INVOLVING

PLANES
The distance D between a point P0 x0 , y0 , z0 and the
plane ax by cz d 0 is

ax0 by0 cz0 d

a b c
2

EXAMPLE 28

Find the distance D between the point (1,-4,-3) and the

plane

2 x 3 y 6 z 1

1.5 POLAR COORDINATES

A polar coordinate system consists of :
A fix point O, called the pole or origin
Polar coordinates ( r , ) where
r : distance from P to the origin
: angle from the polar axis to the ray OP

P(r , )
O
Origin

Polar
axis

THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

II

sin

sin
cos
tan

tan

cos

III

IV
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59

THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

For any angle ;

+ve
-ve

sin sin
cos cos
tan tan
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60

THE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

Trigonometrical ratios of some special angles;

B
30

2
O

60

45

30

45

sin

0
1
0

1/ 2
3/2

1/ 2
1/ 2

1/ 3

tan

45

cos

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60

90
1
3/2
0
1/ 2
3 undefined
61

EXAMPLE 4

Plot the points with the following polar coordinates

(a ) 3, 2250

(b) 2,
3

Solution:
2250

(a)

P 3,2250

O
(b)

P 2,
3

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Relationship between Polar and

Rectangular Coordinates

P
r

O x r cos

x r cos
r x y
2

y r sin

y r sin
y
tan
x

EXAMPLE 5

2,

Change the polar coordinates

to Cartesian coordinates.

Solution:

Since r 2 and , then

3

x r cos 2 cos 1
3

y r sin 2 sin 3
3
The Cartesian coordinates is 1, 3

EXAMPLE 6

Find the rectangular coordinates of the point P whose

2
polar coordinates are r , 4,

Solution:

2
1
x 4 cos 4 2
3
2
3
2
2 3
y 4 sin 4

3
2

Thus, the rectangular coordinates of P are x, y 2,2 3

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EXAMPLE 7

Change the coordinates Cartesian 1,1 to polar coordinates.

y

1,1
If we choose r to be positive, then
r x2 y2

1 2 1 2

y
1,
x
7
or
4
4
tan

The possible polar coordinates are

2 , and
4

7
2,

EXAMPLE 8

Find polar coordinates of the point P whose rectangular

coordinates are

3,4

Solution:

r 2 x 2 y 2 3 4 25
Thus r 5 or r 5
2

Then,

y 4 4
tan

x 3 3

Therefore, 180 0 53.130 233.130

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Symmetry Tests
SYMMETRIC
about the x axis

about the y axis

about the origin

CONDITIONS

r ,

r ,

r,

r ,

r,
r ,

r ,

r,
r ,

( r , )

Symmetry with respect to

x axis

(r , )

Symmetry with respect to y

axis

(r , )

( r , )

( r , )

( r , )

Symmetry with respect

to the origin

EXAMPLE 9

(a) What curve represented by the polar equation r 5

(b) Given that r 2 cos . Determine the symmetry of the
polar equation and then sketch the graph.
(c)Given that r 3 3 sin . Determine the symmetry of the
polar equation and then sketch the graph.
(d) Test and sketch the curve r sin 2 for symmetry.

r cos 2

Area of Polar Coordinates

b

EXAMPLE 10

1 2
A r d
2a

(a) Find the area enclosed by one loop of four petals r cos 2

Answer :
8
(b) Find the area of the region that lies inside the circle r 3 sin
r 1 sin
and outside the cardioid
Answer :

TANGENT LINES TO PARAMETRIC CURVES

dy

dy
dt
dx dx
dt
If dy
If dy

dt
dt

If dy

0 and dx

dt

0 and dx

dt

dt

0 and dx

0
0

dt

Horizontal
Infinite slope
Vertical
Singular points
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EXAMPLE 14

(a) Find the slope of the tangent line to the unit circle

x cos t

at the point where t

3

y sin t

(b) In a disastrous first flight, an experimental paper airplane

follows the trajectory of the particle as

x t 3 sin t

y 4 3 cos t

but crashes into a wall at time t = 10.

i) At what times was the airplane flying horizontally?
ii) At what times was it flying vertically?
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ARC LENGTH OF PARAMETRIC CURVES

L
a

dx
dy

dt
dt
dt

EXAMPLE 15

Find the exact arc length of the curve over the stated interval

(a) x t

(b) x cos 3t

1 3
y t
3

0 t 1

y sin 3t

0t

PARAMETRIC
REPRESENTATION FOR
A
2
R
CURVE IN

EXAMPLE 16

Consider the parametric equations,

x t 9, y t for 3 t 2
2

1
3

a) Sketch the graph.

b) By eliminating t, find the Cartesian equation.

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Solution:

(a )

(b)
x t 9, y t for 3 t 2
2

1
3

x 9 y2 9

EXAMPLE 17

Graph in R

Sketch the graph of F t 2 4t , 1 5t ,3 t

So1ution:
In this form we can see that x 2 4t , y 1 5t , z 3 t
Notice that this is nothing more than a 1ine, with
a point 2, 1,3 and a vector para11e1 is v 4,5,1 .

1.7 CYLINDRICAL & SPHERICAL

COORDINATES

Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

0r
0 2

z
x r cos

y r sin

r x2 y2
y
tan
x
1

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Spherical Polar Coordinates

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FIGURE 11.8.2 (P. 832)

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Figure 11.8.3 (p. 833)

Figure 11.8.4 (p. 833)

Table 11.8.1 (p. 833)

Table 11.8.2 (p. 835)

EXAMPLE 30

(a) Convert from rectangular to cylindrical coordinates

(i) (-5,5,6)
(ii) (0,2,0)
(b) Convert from cylindrical to rectangular coordinates

(i ) 4, ,3
6

(ii) 7 , ,9

(c) Convert from spherical to rectangular coordinates

(i ) 7,0,
2

(ii) 5, ,
6 4

(d) Convert from spherical to cylindrical coordinates

(i ) 3,0,0

2
(ii) 5, ,

4 3

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THE END =)
Success = 90% Perspiration + 10% Inspiration

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