Frequency

Distributions
Quantitative Methods in HPELS
440:210

Agenda
Basic Concepts
Frequency Distribution Tables
Frequency Distribution Graphs
Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Basic Concepts

Frequency distribution: An organized tabulation

of the number of individuals located in each
category on the scale of measurement
Frequency distributions can be in table or graph
format
There are two elements in a frequency
distribution:
The

set of categories that make up the scale of

measurement
The record of the frequency of individuals in each
category

Basic Concepts

There are two reasons to construct

frequency distributions:
Assists

with choosing the appropriate test

statistic (parametric vs. nonparametric)
Assists with identification of outliers

Basic Concepts
Parametric statistics require a normal
distribution
Frequency distributions provide a picture
of the data for determination of normality
If data is normal use parametric statistic,
assuming INTERVAL or RATIO
If data is non-normal use nonparametric
regardless of scale of measurement

The Normal Distribution

1.
2.

Characteristics:
Horizontally symmetrical
Unified mode, median and mean

Non-Normal Distributions

Heavy tailed

Light tailed

Left skewed

Right skewed

Normal Distribution
How to determine if distribution is normal:
Several methods:

Qualititative

assessment
Quantitative assessment:
Kolmogorov-Smirnov
Shapiro-Wilk
Q-Q plots

Interpretation of the Q-Q Normal

Plot

Normal

Heavy tailed

Left skew

Light tailed

Right skew

Bottom Line:
Parametric or Nonparametric?

Is the scale of measurement at least

interval?
No

Nonparametric
Yes Answer next question

Is the distribution normal?

No

Nonparametric
Yes Parametric

Basic Concepts
The frequency distribution can assist with
the identification of outliers
Outlier: An individual data point that is
substantially different from the values
obtained from other individuals in the
same data set
Outliers can have drastic results on the
test statistic

Basic Concepts

Outliers may occur naturally or maybe due

to some form of error:
Measurement

error throw out

Input error correct the error
Lack of effort or purposeful deceit on behalf of
subject throw out.
Natural occurrence keep the data

Agenda
Basic Concepts
Frequency Distribution Tables
Frequency Distribution Graphs
Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Frequency Distribution Tables

FDT contain the following information:

Scale

of measurement (measurement
categories)
Frequency of each point along the scale of
measurement

FDT are in row/column format

Simple

frequency distribution tables

Grouped frequency distribution tables

Simple Frequency Distribution Tables

Process:
List

all measurement categories from lowest

to highest (unless nominal) in a column (X)
List the frequency that each category
occurred in the next column (f)

Example 2.1 (p 37).

Note that f = N where:

N

= total number of individuals.

Simple Frequency Distribution Tables

Obtaining the X from a FDT Process:

Create

a third column called (fX)

Multiply (f) column by (X) column product
in a new (fX) column
X = fX
See Table on page 38

Simple Frequency Distribution Tables

Obtaining Proportions and Percentages:
Proportion (p): The fraction of the total
group associated with each score where,

(p)

= f/N

Percentage (%) = p*100

Example 2.2 (p 37)

Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables

If the data covers a wide range of values,

there are disadvantages to listing each
individual score:
Cumbersome
Difficult

to interpret

Grouped FDT creates groups (class

intervals) of scores

Grouped Frequency Distribution Tables

There are several rules to help with the construction

of grouped FDT:
Rule

Too few: Lost information

Too many: Complicated

Rule

1: Use ~ 10 class intervals

2: Width/size of each class interval should be simple

Easy to count by 2, 5 or 10.

Rule

3: The bottom score in each class interval should be a

multiple of the width/size of the class interval

Example: Width/size = 5
Each interval should start with 5, 10, 15 . . .

Rule

4: Each class interval should be the same width/size.

Example 2.3 (p 40) and Table 2.2 (p 41).

Agenda
Basic Concepts
Frequency Distribution Tables
Frequency Distribution Graphs
Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Frequency Distribution Graphs

Graphs contain same information from the

frequency distribution table
Scale

of measurement or measurement
categories
Frequency of each category

Frequency Distribution Graphs

Format is different:
Scale of measurement is located along
the horizontal x-axis (abscissa)

Values

should increase from left to right.

Frequency is along the vertical y-axis

(ordinate)
Values

should increase from bottom to top.

Frequency Distribution Graphs

Generally speaking:
The

point where the two axes intersect should

have a value of zero
The height (y-axis) of the graph should be
approximately 2/3 to 3/4 of its length (x-axis)
Figure 2.2 (p 44)

Frequency Distribution Graphs

There are several types of FDG:

Histograms

(Interval/Ratio)
Polygons (Interval/Ratio)
Stem and leaf displays (Interval/Ratio)
Bar graphs (Nominal/Ordinal)

FDG: Histograms (I/R)

Process:
List

the numerical scores along the x-axis

Draw a bar above each X value so that:

Height: Corresponds to the frequency

Width: Extends to the real limits of the value

Real limits:
Upper

and lower
Separate adjacent scores along a number line
Example The real limits of 150

Lower limit = 149.5

Upper limit = 150.5

Figure

1.7 (p 19)

FDG: Histograms (I/R)

Bars should be in contact with each other

Extend

to real limits
Figure 2.2a (p 44)

FDG: Histograms (I/R)

Variations:
Histogram

Figure 2.2b (p 45)

Modified

from grouped frequency table

histogram

Figure 2.4 (p 45)

FDG: Polygons (I/R)

Process:
List

the numerical scores along the x-axis

Place dot above scores corresponding to
frequency
Connect dots with continuous line
Draw two lines from the extreme dots to the xaxis
One category below the lowest score
One category above the highest score
Figure 2.5 (p 46)

FDG: Polygons (I/R)

Variations:
Polygon

from grouped data

Figure 2.6 (p 46)

FDG: Stem and Leaf Displays (I/R)

Introduction:
Simple

plot designed by J.W. Tukey (1977)

Two parts:
Stem: First digit
Leaf: Last digit(s)

Table 2.3 (p 59)

FDG: Stem and Leaf Displays (I/R)

Process:
List

all stems that occur (no duplicates)

List all leaves by its stem (duplicates)

Variation:
Double

stems for greater detail

First of two stems associated with leaves (0-4)

Second stem with leaves (5-9)
Table 2.4 (p 60)

FDG: Bar Graph (N/O)

Process:
Same

as histogram
Spaces between the bars no real limits
Figure 2.7 (p 47)

Nominal vs. Ordinal Data:

Nominal

data: The order of the categories is arbitrary

Ordinal data: Logical progression of categories

Example: Dislike, mod. dislike, no opinion, mod. like, like

Agenda
Basic Concepts
Frequency Distribution Tables
Frequency Distribution Graphs
Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Introduction:
Useful

when comparing scores relative to other

scores
Determine the relative position of scores within the
data set
Rank or percentile rank: Percentage of scores at or
below the particular value
Percentile: When a score is identified by its percentile
rank

Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Process:
Within

simple distribution table

Create new column (cf) cumulative
frequency
Count # of scores AT or BELOW the
category

Interpretation:
Cumulative

frequency of 20 = 20
scores fall at or below the category
Example 2.4 (p 52)

Percentiles and Percentile Ranks

Process continued:
Same

table: Add new column (c

%) cumulative percentage or
percentile rank
Divide (cf) value by N

Intepretation:
Percentile

rank of 95% = 95%

of the scores fall at or below
the category
Example 2.5 (p 53)

Textbook Problem Assignment

Problems: 1, 8, 16, 17, 20a, 20c, 24, 25