RENEWABLE

ENERGY
EC9030
Dr. Cynthujah Vivekananthan

Supplied Energy
Renewable energy
Energy obtained from natural and persistent flows of energy occurring in the immediate
environment.
Ex: Solar and wind energy: It is already passing through the environment as a flow
It can also be called Green Energy or Sustainable Energy
Non-renewable energy
Energy obtained from static stores of energy that remain underground unless released
by human interaction.
Ex: Nuclear fuels and fossil fuels of coal, oil and natural gas.
Note: The energy is initially an isolated energy potential, and external action is required
to initiate the supply of energy for practical purposes.
It is also called finite supplies or Brown Energy

Renewable Energy
Energy Flow diagram

Non Renewable
Energy Energy Flow
Diagram

Energy Sources
There are six ultimate sources of useful energy:
The sun
The motion and gravitational potential of the sun, Moon and earth
Geothermal energy from cooling, chemical reaction and the
radioactive decay inside the earth
Nuclear reactions on the earth
Chemical reactions from mineral sources
Fossil fuel (Petroleum product and gases)

Natural Energy Current on Earth in TW

Renewable Energy Systems

Environmental and social

problems of fossil fuels
Water pollution.
Hazardous air pollutants
Ambient air quality.
Maritime pollution
Solid waste disposal
Land use and siting impact.
Acid rain
Stratospheric ozone depletion
Global climate change (greenhouse effect)

Importance of Renewable Energy

Resources and Technologies for
Sustainable Development
They have much less environmental impact
compared to other sources of energy.
Renewable energy sources
cannot be
depleted unlike fossil fuel and uranium
resources.
They favour power system decentralization
and locally applicable solutions more or less
independent of the national network (It
enhances the flexibility of the system and the
economic power supply to small isolated

Renewable Energy
Achievement in Sri Lanka
Per CEB's 2014 generation report;
Total combined installed generation capacity of3,932MW

Thermal - 2,115MW (53.8%)

Coal
900MW (22.9%)
Other Fuel Oil - 1,215MW (30.9%)
Hydropower - 1,665MW (42.3%)
Remaining renewables (small hydro,wind,biomass, and solar)
( 152MW (3.9%)

They produce a total of12,357GWhof electricity during

that year
Thermal - 7,508 GWh (60.8%)
Hydro -, 4,534 GWh (36.7%)
Other renewables - 315 GWh (2.5%)

RENEWABLE ENERGY
WORLDWIDE

Solar Energy (Direct,

Indirect form)
Wind energy
Other forms of energy

Direct Form of Solar Energy

Indirect form of Solar Energy

Other Forms of Energy

Wind Energy Conversion

Systems
Wind generated electricity has been used in three
different modes
below 4kW - used as battery chargers
In between 50 to 300 kW - used in grid connected wind
farms
In between 20 to 100 kW - used in stand alone model
supplemented by
power from diesel-generator sets.

Hydro Electricity Power

Generation

Hydro-Electric Power
Generation
It is a renewable energy source as it does not consume
any water, only using kinetic or potential energy from the
water to generate electricity.
Hydroelectric facilities are powered by the kinetic energy
of flowing water as it moves downstream.
Turbines and generators capture and convert that energy
into electricity and fed into the electrical grid.
The water itself is not reduced or used up in the process,
and because it is an endless, constantly recharging
system, hydropower is defined as a renewable energy.

Why some states do not consider Hydro

Power a Renewable Energy Source
Dam
reservoirs
impact
natural
flows,
temperatures and block loads of rivers and
streams
Several large dams block migrating fish from
reaching their spawning grounds.

History of Hydro Power

Generation
Mankind has used the energy of falling water
for many centuries, at first in mechanical
form and since the late 19th century by
further conversion to electrical energy.
Historically, hydropower was developed on a
small scale to serve localities in the vicinity
of the plants.
With the expansion and increasing load
transfer capability of transmission networks,
power generation was concentrated in
increasingly larger units

Schematic Arrangement of Hydroelectric power plant

It has many arrangements for proper working and efficiency

A dam is constructed across the river
Water from the catchment area is collected at the back of
the dam to form a reservoir
A pressure tunnel is used to bring the water from the
reservoir to the valve house at the start of the penstock
Valve house contains
Main sluice valve
- controls the water flow to the power house
Automatic isolating valves cuts off supply of water when penstock
bursts

Penstock it takes the water from the valve house to the

turbine
Turbine converts hydraulic energy to mechanical energy
Turbine drives the alternator

Cross section of a hydro

power plant

Power Estimation
The potential electric power of the water in terms of
flow and head can be calculated from the following
equation.

Example 1
A hydro electric generating station is
supplied from a reservoir of capacity 5x106
cubic meters at a head of 200m.
Find the total energy available in kWh if the
overall efficiency is 75%.

Firm capacity and yearly

gross output
Firm capacity=plant efficiency x gross plant
capacity
Yearly gross output = firm capacity x hours in
an year

Example 2
It is estimates that the minimum run-off of a
hydropower plant is 94 cubic meters per
second with a head of 39m. Assume the
plant efficiency is 80%.
Find firm capacity
Yearly gross output

Example 3
A hydro power station is obtained from a
reservoir with a head of 100m. Calculate the
electrical energy generated per hour for one
cubic meters per second of water flow if the
hydraulic efficiency be 0.86 and electrical
efficiency 0.92.

Definition of Yield Factor and

Load Factor
Yield Factor Utilized percentage of rain
water (in volume) from the catchment area
for the purpose of hydropower generation

Example 4
Calculate
the average power in kW that can be

generated in a hydro-electric project from the

following data.
Catchment area =
Mean head = 30m
Annual Rainfall = 1.25 m
Yield factor = 80%
Overall efficiency = 70%
If the load factor is 40%, what is the rating of
generators installed?

Hydro power potential in

SriLanka

River basins in Sri Lanka for

Hydro Power

Types of Hydro Power Plants

There are three main types of hydropower schemes
based on how the flow at a given site is controlled or
modified
Run-of-river plants (no active storage)
Plants with significant storage
Pumped storage

Capacity, unit size and selection of Equipment,

Characteristics and Specifications for design of hydro
power station depends the types mentioned above

Run-of-river plant or
Diversion Schemes
In some areas of the world, the flow rate and elevation
drops of the water are consistent enough that hydro
electric plants can be built directly in the river.
The water is utilized as it comes in the river.
Practically, water is not stored during flood periods as well
as during low electricity demand periods. So, water is
wasted.
Run of river plant may be without pondage or with
pondage.
Run-of-river facilities use low dams to provide limited
storage of water mostly daily pondage.
During good flow conditions can supply base load
During low flow conditions can supply peak load

Seasonal changes in river flow and weather conditions

affect the plants output, hence it is in limited use unless

Run-of-river plant

Run-of-river scheme

Storage Plant (Impounded

Plant)
A common type of hydro power plant.
This plant has storage reservoir provided by constructing a dam across the
river.
It is generally preferred in mountainous regions.
The storage of water takes care of fluctuations of water supply during flood
and draught period as well as during load fluctuations, hence it can supply
electricity more constantly than any other plants
Suitable for both base load and peak load.
Other benefits of this plant are:

Flood control
Irrigation
Drinking water
Improved fish breeding etc.

Typical Dam Toe Small Hydro

Power Plant

Pumped Storage Power Plant

Water is utilized for generation of power during peak demand,
while same water is pumped back in the reservoir during off peak
demand period, when excess power is available for this purpose.
If turbine is reversible, it can be used as a pump to supply water
back to reservoir
otherwise separate pump can be used.
Based on operating cycle it can be classified as:

Plant with a daily cycle: water is pumped up from mid night to early
morning as well as near lunch time.
Plant with a weekly cycle: water is pumped up during weekend.
Plant with a seasonal cycle: water is pumped up in the winter
continuously for several days to be utilized for a continuous power
generation in the high demand summer period.

Pumped Storage Power plant

Hydro Power Projects based

on Head
Low head plant
Medium head plant
m
High head plant

up to 30 m
between 30 to 300
more than 300 m

Hydro Power Projects based on

Turbine Characteristics

[Specific speed is the speed of a turbine of size that it will

develop unit power when working under unit head.]

Hydro power plant based on

load characteristics
Base load plant:
Operates continuously and generate constant
power throughout the year.
e.g. Storage plant, Run of river plant without
pondage.

Peak load plant:

Which supply the power during the peak hours
only.
e.g. Pumped storage plant, Run of river plant with
pondage.

Types of Hydropower plants based on

interconnections
Isolated plants:
If a power station works independently it is referred as an isolated
plant
Generally installed in industries (i.e. captive power plant)

Interconnected plants:
If a power station
interconnected plant

is

connected

with

grid,

it

is

called

Advantages of Hydropower
plant
Requires no fuel as water is used for the generation of
electricity
It is clean
Requires small running charges as water is the source of
energy available at free cost
Comparatively simple in construction
Requires less maintenance
Does not require long starting time like steam power
station (Hence, can be put into service immediately)
Robust and has a long life
It serves many purpose such as irrigation and control of
floods

Disadvantaged of
hydropower plant
Requires high capital cost due to construction of
dam
There is an uncertainty in availability of huge
amount of water due to dependence on weather
conditions
Skilled and experienced hand required to build
the plant
Requires high cost of transmission lines as the
plant is located at the high hills which are quite
away from the consumers

General Layout 1 of Hydro

power plant

General layout 2 of
Hydropower plant

Choice of site for Hydroelectric Power Station

Consider the following points
Availability of water

A place with adequate amount of water with river or canal at a considerable head is
desired

Storage of water

There will be a wide variation of water supply from a river or canal throughout the year.
Hence, it is necessary to store the water by constructing a dam so that can have
continuous power generation throughout the year.

Cost and type of land

Land shall be available at a reasonable price

Bearing capacity of the land should be adequate to withstand the weight of heavy
equipment to be installed

Transportation facility

Selected site shall be accessible to rail and road for easy transportation

Example 5
A hydro electric power station has a reservoir
of area 2.4 square kilometers and capacity The
effective head of water is 100 meters. The
penstock turbine and generation efficiencies
are respectively 95%, 90% and 85%.
Calculate the total electrical energy that can be
generated from the power station.
If a load of 15,000kW has been supplied for 3
hours, find the fall in reservoir level.

Example 6
A factory is located near a waterfall where the usable head of
power generation is 25m. The factory requires continuous power
of 400kW throughout the year. The river flow in the year is;

in 4 months
in 2 months
in 6 months

If the site is developed as a run-of-river plant without storage,

determine the standby capacity to be provided. Assure the overall
efficiency of the plant is 80%.
If a reservoir is arranged upstream, will any standby unit be
necessary? What will be the excess power available? Here,
consider the average discharge of the plant is the average of the
river flow throughout the year.

Example 7
A
run-of-river plant with pondage has the
following data.

Installed capacity=10MW
Water head = 20m
Overall efficiency = 80%
Load factor = 40%

Determine the river discharge in required for

the plant.
If on a particular day, the river flow is 20 ,
what load factor can the power plant supply?

Example 8
The weekly discharge of a typical hydro electric power plant
is;
Day

Sund Monda Tuesda Wednes Thurs Friday

ay
y
y
day
day

Saturd
ay

Dischar 500
520
850
800
875
900
546
ge in
cubic
The plant has an effective head of 15m and an overall
meters
efficiency
of 85%. If the plant operated on 40% load factor,
per
sec

estimate;

Average daily discharge

Pondage required (consider the average discharge is to be
maintained daily)
Installed capacity of proposed plant

Components of Hydro-power
plant
Hydraulic Structures

Dam
Spillways
Headworks
Surge tank
Penstock

Water Turbines
Electrical Equipment

Dam
It is a barrier which store water and create
water head
It is built in;

Concrete
stone masonry built on narrow canyon
Earth suited for wide valley
rock fill

Dam type will be selected based on

Local materials
Available transportation
Occurrence of earthquake
Economic factors

Spillways
At some time, the river flow exceeds
the storage capacity of the reservoir
due to heavy rain in the catchment
area
Spill way is used to discharge the
surplus water to the downstream side
of the dam
It is made of concrete piers (platforms)
on the top of the dam
Gates are in between the piers
Surplus water is discharged over the
crest of the dam my opening the gates

Headworks
It has the diversion structures at the head of an
intake. They are;
Booms and Racks to divert floating debris
Sluices to bypass debris and sediments
Valves control the flow of water to the turbine

The flow of water shall be smooth to avoid head

loss and cavitation
Therefore, sharp corners and abrupt contraction
or enlargement shall be avoided

Surge tank
It is built just before the valve house
It protects the penstock from
bursting, in case the turbine gates
suddenly closed due to electrical
load being off
When the gate closes, there is a
sudden stop in water at the low end
of the penstock
So, the penstock can burst
Surge tank absorbs this pressure
swing by increasing its level of water

Penstock
They are open or close conduits which carry water
to the turbines
It is made of
Reinforced Concrete suitable for low head (<30m) as
more pressure deteriorate concrete
Steel can be used for any head. Thickness of steel
increased with head or working pressure

Water Turbines
It converts energy of falling water into
mechanical energy
The principal water turbines are;
Impulse turbine
Reaction turbine

Impulse turbine
It is used for high head
Here, the entire pressure of water is converted into kinetic
energy in a nozzle and velocity of jet drives the wheel
Ex: Pelton wheel

Pelton wheel
It has elliptical buckets on the wheel which drives the turbine
Quantity of water is controlled by a needle in the tip of the nozzle
The movement of the needle is controlled by the governor

If the load on the turbine reduces, the governor pushes the

needle into the nozzle, reducing the quantity of water hitting the
buckets
Reverse action takes place when the load increases

Pelton Wheel

Advantages of Pelton Wheel

High acceptance of flow variation (could
operate in different seasons and while
unmanned)
Does not need casing
Can deliver significant power with low flow
rates
Relative ease of construction, where the
different components are able to be made
separately and then assembled
Relatively easy maintenance since it can be
taken apart

Disadvantages of Pelton
Wheel
Need a high pressure head in order to
produce power (larger than 60 meters)
Larger amount of penstock needed due to
long distance
Needs well-filtered water to prevent nozzle
blockage

Reaction Turbine
It is used for low and medium head
Water enter partly with;
Pressure energy (Energy in a fluid due to applied
pressure)
Velocity head

Water is encased to contain the water

pressure. So it is submerged in water
Types of reaction turbines
Francis Turbine
Kaplan Turbine

Francis Turbine
It is used for low to medium head with;
Outer ring - Stationary guide blades fixed to turbine casing
Inner ring Rotating blades forming runner

Guide blades control the flow of water

Water flow is radially inwards and changes to outwards while
passing through the runner, and exit axially through draft tube
When the water passes through the rotating blades of the
runner, the pressure and velocity reduces
It causes the reaction force to drive the turbine
Adjustable guide vanes before the runner changes the water
flow rate

Francis Turbine

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Francis Turbine
The advantages
High efficiency
Can operate between a large range of head heights
(25 350m)
Medium acceptance of flow variations

The disadvantages
Must be fully immerged in water and enclosed in a
pressure casing (difficult to repair and reproduce)
Usually used only in large hydroelectric systems
Difficult to maintain/clean - Guide vanes must be
adjusted based on current flow rate

Kaplan Turbine
It is used for low heads
Used for large quantities of water
It is similar to Francis turbine but the turbine
receives water axially
Water flows radially inwards through guide vanes
all round the sides, changing direction in runner to
axial flow
It causes a reaction force which drives the turbine

Kaplan Turbine

Advantages and Disadvantages

of Kaplan Turbine
The advantages
Good adaption to varying flow rates
Can be used in a low head situation (2 40m),
leading to lower cost of penstock/piping

The disadvantages
Requires a high flow rate
Must be fully immersed in water and enclosed in a
pressure casing (difficult to repair and reproduce)
Runner blades/guide vanes must be adjusted based
on current flow rate
Expensive to design, manufacture, and install

Turbines for Range of Heads

Reference
Gilbert M. Masters, Renewable and Efficient
Electric Power Systems, Stanford University
Hydropower Engineering, Department of Technical
Education Govt. of Uttarakanth, July 2008
Google Search Engine

RENEWABLE
ENERGY
EC9030
Dr. Cynthujah Vivekananthan

DESING OF MICROHYDRO
POWER SYSTEMS
Small-scale hydropower systems are considered to be those
that generate between 100 kW and 30 MW
Micro-hydro plants are smaller than 100 kW
The simplest micro-hydro plants are run-of-the-river
systems, which means that they dont include a dam.
They dont cause nearly the ecosystem disruption of their dams
and reservoir counterparts
A portion of the river is diverted into a penstock, that delivers
water under pressure to a hydraulic turbine/generator located in a
powerhouse located at some elevation below the intake.
Depending on how the system has been designed, the powerhouse
may also contain a battery bank to help provide for peak demands
that exceed the average generator output.

Run-of-river plant

Power From a Microgrid Plant

The energy associated with water manifests itself in
three ways:
Potential energy
By virtue of its height above some reference levelin this
case, the height above the powerhouse.
Pressure energy
Water under pressure in the penstock is able to do work
when released, so there is energy associated with that
pressure as well.
Kinetic energy.
Finally, as water flows there is the kinetic energy that is
associated with any mass that is moving.

Power from Microgrid

The transformations between these forms of energy as
water flows from the forebay, through the penstock, and
out of a nozzle.

Power from Microgrid in the

form of head
It is convenient to express each of these three
forms of energy on a per unit of weight basis (as
head and has dimensions of length, with units
such as feet of head or meters of head.
The total energy is the sum of the potential,
- the elevation above a reference height
pressure, and kinetic z(m)
head
and is given by;
or (ft)
p - the pressure (N/m2) or (lb/ft2),
- the specific weight (N/m3) or (lb/ft3)
v - the average velocity (m/s) or (ft/s)
g - gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2) or
(32.2 ft/s2).

Useful conversion of units

Example 1
Suppose a 4-in.-diameter penstock delivers 150
gpm of water through an elevation change of
100 feet. The pressure in the pipe is 27 psi
(pounds per square inch) (lb/in2) when it
reaches the powerhouse.
What fraction of the available head is lost in the
pipe?
What power is available for the turbine?

Gross Head
Key relationship for power in water can be written as;

Here, H is the gross head as it didnt consider the pipe losses

that decrease the power available at the turbine.
The net head = gross head (the actual elevation difference) the head loss in the piping.
Those losses are a function of the pipe diameter, the flow rate,
the length of the pipe, how smooth the pipe is, and how many
bends, valves, and elbows the water has to pass through on its
way to the turbine.

Net Head

Pipe Losses
Figure shows the friction loss, expressed as feet of
head per 100 feet of pipe, for PVC and for
polyethylene (poly) pipe of various diameters.

Pipe Loss
PVC pipe has lower friction losses and it is also less
expensive than poly pipe
However, small diameter poly may be easier to install since
it is somewhat flexible and can be purchased in rolls from
100 to 300 feet long.
Larger-diameter poly comes in shorter lengths that can be
butt-welded on site.
Both need to be protected from sunlight, since ultraviolet
exposure makes these materials brittle and easier to crack.
The energy delivered by a micro-hydro system is given by;

Here, e is the efficiency of the turbine/generator.

Power generated at presence

of pipe loss
Rules-of-thumb for 50%-efficient
turbine/generator systems (which is in the
right ballpark for a micro-hydro plant):

Example 2
Suppose 150 gpm of water is taken from a
creek and delivered through 1000 ft of 3-in.diameter polyethylene pipe to a turbine 100 ft
lower than the source.
Use the rule-of-thumb to estimate the power
delivered by the turbine/generator.
In a 30-day month, how much electric energy
would be generated?

Analysis of head loss Pipe

size
Larger-diameter pipe always reduces losses and
increase power delivered
But, large pipe costs more, especially when the
cost of larger valves and other fittings is
included, and it is more difficult to work with.
Since the cost of the piping is often a significant
fraction of the total cost of a micro-hydro
project, an economic analysis should be used to
decide upon the optimum pipe diameter.

Analysis of Head loss Flow

rate
Suppose, the pipe size has already been determined
Perhaps it is already the largest diameter conveniently available
Have to analyse whether there is an optimum flow rate through
the pipe.
If flow is too high, friction eats up too much of the power and
output drops.
By slowing down the flow rate, friction losses are reduced but
so is the power delivered.
So, there must be some ideal flow rate that balances these two
competing phenomena and produces the maximum power for a
given pipe size.

Maximum power for a given

pipe size
The curve for frictional head loss can be
approximated quite accurately by the following
relationship:

Here, k is just an arbitrary constant

The power delivered by the pipeline is the net
head times the flow, with a constant of
proportionality c;

Maximum power for a given

pipe size cont
For maximum power, we can take the
derivative with respect to Q and set it equal to
zero:

So, the theoretical maximum power delivered

by a pipeline occurs when pipe losses are onethird of the gross head:

Example 3
Find the optimum flow rate for the 1000 ft of 3-in.
poly pipe in example 2, Gross head is 100 ft.
Find the maximum power generated from the
plant using the rule of thumb.

Answer to Example 3

Summary
Slowing the flow may increase power delivered by
the pipeline
A function of a properly designed nozzle to control
that flow without much power loss.
The first approach to increasing power delivered is
always to consider a larger pipe.
Keeping the friction losses less than 20% seem to
be good design guidelines.

Measuring Flow
A determination of the available water flow is
essential to planning and designing a system.
Before making investment on hydropower
project, have to take careful measurements of
flow throughout an year

A rectangular weir used to

measure flows

Methods of estimating flow

Methods of estimating stream flow;
Bucket-and stopwatch approach
Stream velocity measurements are made across the
entire cross section of the creek using a propeller or
cup-driven current meter.

For micro-hydro systems,

building a temporary plywood, concrete or metal wall,
called a weir, across the creek.
The height of the water as it flows through a notch in
the weir can be used to determine flow.

Flow rate measurements

The notch in the weir has different shapes

Rectangular
Triangular
trapezoidal.

A sharp edge is needed, so that the water drops off immediately as

it crosses the weir.
For accuracy, a very slow moving pool of water behind it so that the
surface is completely smooth as it approaches the weir
ruler needs to be set up so that the height of the water upstream
can be measured.
When the geometric relationships for the rectangular weir are
followed, and height h is more than about 5 cm, or 2 in., the flow
can be estimated from the following:

Example 4
Design a weir to be able to measure flows
expected to be at least 100 gpm following
the constraints given in the Figure.

Turbines
Turbines use to convert energy into
mechanical form are;
Impulse Turbine Pelton Wheel
Reaction Turbine Francis or Kaplan Turbines

Pelton Wheel
Water squirts out of nozzles onto sets of twin buckets
attached to the rotating wheel.
The buckets are carefully designed to extract as much of
the waters kinetic energy as possible while leaving enough
energy in the water to enable it to leave the buckets
without interfering with the incoming water.
Diagram of four nozzle Pelton Wheel

Pelton Wheel
The flow rate is controlled by nozzles
When water exits a nozzle, its pressure head is converted to
kinetic energy.
So, the flow velocity can be determined as;
Consider we have n no. of nozzles.
Appropriate diameter for the water jets can be determined.

For nozzles with needle valves, the jet diameter is in the order
of 1020% smaller than the nozzle
but for simple microhydro system, the jet and nozzle
diameters are nearly equal

Example 5
A penstock provides 150 gpm (0.334 cfs (cubic
feet per second)) with 50 ft of head to a Pelton
turbine with 4 nozzles. Assuming jet and nozzle
diameters are the same, pick a nozzle diameter.
Here, g = 9.81 m/s2 = 32.2 ft/s2

Problem with original Pelton Wheel and

improved design
The efficiency of the original Pelton design suffers at
higher flow rates because water trying to leave the
buckets tends to interfere with the incoming jet.
Improved design: Turgo wheel
It is similar to a Pelton wheel
But the runner has a different shape and the incoming jet of
water hits the blades from one side, allowing exiting water to
leave from the other
So, it greatly reduces the interference problem
It also allows the jet to spray several buckets at once; this spins
the turbine at a higher speed than a Pelton

Pelton and Turgo Wheels

Pelton Wheel

Turgo Wheel

Other type of Impulse turbine

Cross flow Turbine
There is another impulse turbine, called a cross-flow turbine,
which is especially useful in low-to-medium head situations (520
m).
This turbine is also known as a Banki, Mitchell, or Ossberger
turbinenames that reflect its inventor, principal developer, and
current manufacturer.
It has a drum shaped runner consisting of two parallel disks
connected together near their rims by a series of curved blades.
A crossflow turbine always has its runner shaft horizontal (unlike
Pelton and Turgo turbines which can have either horizontal or
vertical
shaft
orientation).

Cross Flow Turbine

Operation of Cross Flow

Turbine
In operation a rectangular nozzle directs the jet onto the
full length of the runner.
The water strikes the blades and imparts most of its
kinetic energy.
It then passes through the runner and strikes the blades
again on exit, impacting a smaller amount of energy
before leaving the turbine.

Reaction Turbines at low heads

and large flow rate

For low head installations with large flow rates, reaction turbines are
used
Reaction turbine runners are completely immersed in water and derive
their power from the mass of water moving through them rather than
the velocity.
In microhydro system, propeller turbines are used commonly
The propeller may have anywhere from three to six blades, which for
small systems are usually fixed pitch.

Kaplan Turbine with variable

pitch
Larger units that include variable-pitch
blades and other adjustable features are
referred to as Kaplan turbines.

Electrical Aspects of Microhydro

Electricity system

Larger micro-hydro systems may be used as a

source of ac power that is fed directly into utility
lines using conventional synchronous generators
and grid interfaces.
Since the output frequency is determined by the rpm
of the generator, very precise speed controls are
necessary.
While mechanical governors and hand-operated
control valves have been traditionally used, modern
systems have electronic governors controlled by
microprocessors.

Reference
Gilbert M. Masters, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power
Systems, Stanford University