Microprocessors

CSE 341
EEE 365
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Programming Model
Programming Model of the 8086 through P4 is considered
program visible.
Program visible Its registers are used during application
programming and are specified in the instructions.
Program Invisible Some registers are not addressable directly
and cannot be used for the purpose of application programming.
They are used for other special purposes which will be detailed
later. Only 80286 and above contain program invisible registers
used to control and operate the protected memory system.
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8 bit
names
32 BIT
NAMES

16 bit
names

EAX

AH

AX

AL

ACCUMULATOR

EBX

BH

BX

BL

BASE INDEX

ECX

CH

CX

CL

COUNT

EDX

DH

DX

DL

DATA

ESP

SP

STACK POINTER

EBP

BP

BASE POINTER

EDI

DI

DESTINATION INDEX

ESI

SI

SOURCE INDEX

EIP

IP

EFLAGS

FLAGS

ACCUMULATOR
FLAGS

CS

CODE

DS

DATA

ES

EXTRA

SS

STACK

FS
GS

The shaded boxes exist only from 80386 through P4

FS and GS registers have no special names.
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Programming Model
The architecture of the earlier 8086 through 80286 are fully
upward compatible to the 80386 through P4.
Registers EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, EBP, EDI and ESI are
regarded as general purpose or multi purpose registers.
Multi-purpose registers hold various data sizes ( bytes, words
, or double words) and are used for almost any purpose , as
dictated by program.

Multipurpose Registers
EAX (ACCUMULATOR) The accumulator is used for
instructions such as multiplication, division and some of the
adjustment instructions. In 80386 and above, the EAX register
may also hold the offset address of a location in memory
system.
EBX (BASE INDEX) This can hold the offset address of a
location in the memory system in all version of the
microprocessor. It the 80386 and above EBX also can address
memory data.
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Multipurpose Registers
ECX (count) This acts as a counter for various instructions.
As we will see later in 80386 and above, the ECX register also
can hold the offset address of memory data. Instruction use
use a count are the repeated string instructions
( REP/REPE/REPNE) and shift rotate and LOOP/LOOPD
instructions. The shift and rotate instructions use CL as the
count, the repeated string instruction use CX, and the
LOOP/LOOPD instructions use either CS or ECX.

Multipurpose Registers
EDX (data) EDX is a general-purpose registers that holds a
part of the result for mutilation or part of the dividend before a
division. In the 80386 and above this register can also address
memory data.
EBP(Base Pointer) EBP points to a memory location in all
version of the microprocessor for memory data transfers. This
register is addressed as either BP or EBP.
EDI (Destination index) EDI often addresses string
destination data for the string instruction. It also functions as
either a 32-bit (EDI) or 16-bit (DI) general-purpose register.
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Multipurpose Registers
ESI (Source index) ESI can either be used as ESI or SI. It
is often used to the address source string data for the string
instructions. Like EDI ESI also functions as a general-purpose
registers.

Special Purpose Registers

EIP (Instruction Pointer) EIP addresses the next instruction in
a section of memory defined as a code segment. This register is IP
(16bit) when microprocessor operates in the real mode and EIP (32
bits) when 80386 and above operate in protected mode.
Although 8086, 8088 and 80286 do contain EIP but only 80286
and above operate in protected mode.
The Instruction pointer, which points to the next instruction in a
program, is used by the microprocessor to find the next sequential
instruction in a program located within the code segment. The
instruction pointer can be modified with a jump or a call
instruction.
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Special Purpose Registers

ESP (Stack Pointer) ESP addresses an area of memory called
the stack. The stack memory is a data LIFO data structure. The
register is referred to as SP if used in 16 bit mode and ESP if
referred to as a 32 bit register.
EFLAGS Indicates the condition of the microprocessor and
controls its operations. Flag registers are also upward compatible
since the 8086-80268 have 16bit registers and the 80386 and
above have EGLAF register (32 bits)

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Flags
31..
22

21

20

19

18

17

16

ID

VIP

VIF

AC

VM

RF

15

14

13

12

11

10

NT

IOP1

IOP0

4
A

0
C

808680888018680188
80286
80386/8986DX
80486SX
PENTIUMPENTIUM 4

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FLAGS
The flags:
C
P
A
Z
S
O
Change after many arithmetic and logic operations
These are known as Conditional Flags.

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Flags
C (Carry) It holds the carry after addition or the borrow
after subtraction. The carry flag also indicates error
conditions, as dictated by some programs and procedures.
P (Parity) Parity is a logic 0 for odd parity and a logic 1 for
even parity. Parity is a count of ones in a number expressed as
even or odd. Today this is seldom used, initially implemented
to check data during communication. Today this is mostly
done through external hardware rather than the P.

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Flags
A (Auxiliary carry) The auxiliary carry holds the carry
(half-carry) after addition or the borrow after subtraction
between bits positions 3 and 5 of the results. This highly
specialized flag is use during BCD operations.
Z (Zero) The zero flag shows that the result of an arithmetic
or logical operation is zero. When Z = 1, the result is zero.
When Z = 0, the result was non-zero.
S (Sign) The sign flag holds the arithmetic sign after an
arithmetic or a logical operation. If S =1 the sign bit is set and
the result is negative. If S = 0, the sign bit is not set and the
result is positive.
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Flags
T (Trap) The trap flag enables trapping through an on-chip
debugging facility. When this is set to 1 the microprocessor
interrupts operation based on values set in the debugging
register and the control registers.
I (Interrupt) The interrupt flag controls the operations of
the INTR(Interrupt request) input pint. If I =1, the INTR pin is
enabled; if I =0, the INTR pin is disabled. The state of the I
flag bit is controlled by the STI (set I flag) and CLI (Clear I
flag) instructions.

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Flag
D (Direction) The direction flag selects either the increment
or decrement mode for DI and/or SI registers during string
instructions. If D=1 the registers are automatically
decremented; if D =0 the registers are automatically
incremented. The D flag is set with the STD( set direction)
and cleared with the CLD(clear direction) instruction.
O (overflow) Overflow occurs when signed numbers are
added or subtracted. An overflow indicates that the result has
exceeded the capacity of the machine. For example if a 7FH
(+127) is added using a 8 bit addition to a 01H ( +1) the result
is 80H(-128). The result represents an overflow condition
indicated by the overflow flag for the signed addition.
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Flags
IOPL (I/O Privilege level) IOPL is used in protected mode
operation to select the privilege level for I./O devices. IF the
current privilege level is higher or more trusted than the IOPL,
I/O executed without hindrance. If the IOPL is lover than the
current privilege level, an interrupt occurs, causing execution
to suspend. Note that an IPOL is 00 is the highest or more
trusted; if IOPL is 11, its the lowest or least trusted.
NT (nested task) The nested task flag is used to indicated
that the current task is nested within another task in protected
mode operation. This flag is when the task I nested by
software.
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Flags
RF(resume) The resume flag is used with debugging to
control the resumption of execution after the next instruction.
VM (virtual mode) The VM flag bit selects virtual mode
operation in a protected mode system. A virtual mode system
allows multiple DOS memory partitions that are 1M byte in
length to coexist in the memory system. Essentially, this
allows the system program to execute multiple DOS
programs.

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Flags
AC (alignment check) This flag is activates if a word or a
double work is addressed on a non-word or non-double word
boundary. Only the 80486SX microprocessor contains the
alignment check bit that is primarily used by its companion
numeric coprocessor, the 80487SX, for synchronization.
VIF (Virtual Interrupt flag) The VIF is a copy of the
interrupt flag bit available to the Pentium P4
microprocessor. This is used in multitasking environments to
provide the operating system with virtual interrupt flags and
interrupt pending information.
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Flags
ID (identification) The ID flag indicated that the PentiumP4 microprocessors support CPUID instruction. The CPU ID
instruction provides the systems with information about the
Pentium microprocessor, about as its version number and the
manufacturer.

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Segment Register
CS (Code) The code segment is a section of memory that
holds the code used by the microprocessor. The code segment
registers defines the starting address of the section of memory
holding code.
In read mode operation, it defines the start of the 64K-byte
section of the memory in protected mode, it selects a
description that describes the starting address and length of a
section of memory holding code.
The code segment is limited to 64K bytes in the 8088-80268
and 4 GB in the 80386 and above when these microprocessors
operate in the protected mode.
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DS (Data) The data section contains most data used by a

program. Data are accessed in the data segment by an offset
address of the contests of other registers that hold the offset
address.
ES (extra) The extra segment is used to hold information
about string transfer and manipulation
SS (Stack) The stack segment defines the area of memory
used for the stack. The stack entry point is determined by the
stack segment and stack pointer registers. The BP registers
also addresses data within the stack segment.
FS and GS These are supplement segment registers
available in the 80386 and above microprocessors to allow
two additional memory segments for access by programs.
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Real Mode Memory Addressing

80286 and above operate in either the read or protected mode.
Only the 8086 and 8088 operate exclusively in the real mode.
Real mode operation allows the microprocessor to address
only the first 1Mbyte of memory space called either real
memory or conventional memory.
Even if P4 is running in real mode it can address only 1Mbyte.
This real mode feature is partially responsible for the success
of the Intel family of microprocessors.
Code written for 80868088 is upward compatible and will
work on 80286 and others without any upgrades.
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Segment and Offsets

Combination of a segment address and an offset address
access a memory location in the real mode.
The segment address located within one segment register
defines the beginning address of any 64K-byte memory
segment.
The offset address is also held in a register and selects any
location within the 64K byte memory segment.

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FFFFF
1FFFF
1F000

Offset = F000

10000

Segment Register
1000

00000

Offset is also sometimes referred to as

displacement
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The segment register in the previous example contained

1000H yet it addresses a segment starting at location 10000H.
In real mode ever value in the segment register is appended
with a 0H on its rightmost end.
Because of the append, real mode segments can begin only at
16-byte boundary in the memory system.This 16-byte
boundary is called a paragraph.
Also because we know hat in real mode segment of memory is
60K in length, the ending address is found by adding FFFFH.
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What is the ending address of the segment, whose address is

defined as 3000H in the segment register?
A segment with segment address of 1000H and offset address
of 2000H may also be written as 1000:2000.
What is the actual memory location for 1200:300?
In 80286 (with special circuitry) and the 80386 through P4 an
extra 64K minus 16 bytes is addressable when the segment
address is FFFFH and the HIMEM>SYS driver is installed in
the system. This extra area 0FFFF0H 10FFEFH is referred
to as high memory.
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Some addressing modes combine more than one register and

an offset value to form an offset address.
Find the actual memory location being pointed to if the
segment address is given as 4000H and the two offset
registers hold offset values F000H and 3000H.

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Default Segment and Offset Registers

There are some default segment and settings that are used.
For example CS:IP or CS:EIP is used to find the location of
the instruction the microprocessor fetches to be executed next.
If code segment register contains the value 1400H and EIP
contains 00001200H. What is the actual physical location of
the next instruction.?

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Default Segment and Offset Registers

Another default combination is implemented by the Stack.
Stack uses the SS (Stack Segment) to give the base address
and then the offset is defined by the SP (Stack pointer) or
BP(Base Pointer)
Stack uses the SS (Stack Segment) to give the base address
and then the offset is defined by the SP (Stack pointer) or
BP(Base Pointer)
NOTE: In real mode only rightmost 16 bits of the extended
register address a location within the memory segment.
Placing a number larger than FFFFH into an offset register
while in real mode causes the system to halt and indicate an
addressing error.
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Segmentation
Remember that 8086-80286 microprocessors allow four
memory segments and 80386 and above allow six memory
segments.
Memory segments can touch or even overlap if 64K bytes of
memory are not required for a segment.
Think of a segment as a windows that can be moved over any
area of the memory to access data or code within that area.

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GENERAL SEGMENTATION EXAMPLE: PAGE 60

OVERLAPPING EXAMPLE PAGE 61
Segment and offset addressing scheme seems complicated. But, it
has its advantages.
What could be its advantage ?

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Relocate-able programs:
A program that can be places into any area of memory and
executed without changing.
Relocate-able data:
Data that can be moved to any part of the memory and can still be
used without making changes to the program that use such data.
This is ideal for use in general-purpose computer system in which
not all machines contain the same memory areas.
The structure of the personal computer memory structure is
different form machine to machine requiring relocate able software
and data.
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Is this enough for today ?

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