Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
ofMetals
Stress(MPa)
500
CONTINUED
400
300
200
100
0
0.000 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.010
Strain
MechanicalProperties
StiffnessElasticModulusorYoungsModulus(MPa)
StrengthYield,Ultimate,Fracture,Proof,OffsetYield.
Measuredasstress(MPa)
DuctilityMeasureofabilitytodeformplasticallywithout
fractureElongation,AreaReduction,FractureStrain(nounits
ormm/mm)
Toughness,ResilienceMeasureofabilitytoabsorbenergy
(J/m3).
HardnessResistancetoindentation/abrasion(Variousscales,
e.g.;Rockwell,Brinell,Vickers.)
StressandStrain
Inasimplisticsense,stressmaybethoughtof
asLoad/Area.
Similarly,strainisthedeformationofthe
component/originallength.
Astressmaybedirect,shear,ortorsional
leadingtocorrespondingdeformations.
Stresscannotbemeasureddirectly,but
deformationcanbe.
DirectStressExamples
Load, P
L/2
Lo
Area
Ao
L/2
EngineeringStress
Load, P
P
S
Ao
L/2
Lo
L
e
Lo
L/2
EngineeringStrain
DirectStressTension
Area
Ao
DirectStressCompression
TensionTest
MeasuresP
Extensometer
MeasuresL
TypicalUniversal
TestingMachine
ModernMaterialsTestingSystem
Hydraulic
Wedge
Grips
Specimen
Extensometer
ASTMTensionTestSpecimen
Ao=0.20in2
0.505"Dia
2GaugeLength
Lo
RawDataObtained
Load,P(kN)
Total
Elongation
UniformDeformation
X
Maximum
Load,Pmax
Elastic
Deformation
Elongation,L(mm)
Load,Pf
EngineeringStressStrainCurve
EngineeringStress,S=P/Ao
Elongation
Sy
0.2%offset
yieldstress
(Ultimate)
Su
E
ProportionalLimit
EngineeringStrain,e=L/Lo)
DukesQuickTip!
ExpressLoadinNewtons(N)andAreainmm 2to
getStressinMPa.
N
2 MPa
mm
Mechanicalpropertiesofmetalsarealmost
alwaysgiveninMPaorksi.
Imperialunits:Loadinkips(1000lbf)&Areaas
in2givesStressinksi(kips/in2)
1000psi=1ksi=6.89MPa
HookesLaw
ElasticDeformation
Elasticdeformationisnotpermanent;itmeansthatwhenthe
loadisremoved,thepartreturnstoitsoriginalshapeand
dimensions.
Formostmetals,theelasticregionislinear.Forsome
materials,includingmetalssuchascastiron,polymers,and
concrete,theelasticregionisnonlinear.
Ifthebehaviorislinearelastic,ornearlylinearelastic,
HookesLawmaybeapplied:
S Ee
WhereEisthemodulusofelasticity(MPa)
Stre ss(M Pa )
ModulusofElasticityStiffness
500
CONTINUED
400
300
S (300 0)MPa
E
2x10 5 MPa
e (0.015 0.0)
200
100
0
0.000
0.002
0.004
0.006
Strain
0.008
0.010
AtomicOriginofStiffness
NetInteratomicForce
dF
E
dr ro
Strongly Bonded
Weakly Bonded
InteratomicDistance
Shear
Strain,
Shear Stress,
ShearStress
ShearStressandStrain
ShearStrain
shearstress,=ShearLoad/Area
shearstrain,=angleofdeformation(radians)
shearmodulus,G = /(elasticregion)
ElasticPropertiesofMaterials
Poissonsratio:Whenametalisstrainedin
onedirection,therearecorrespondingstrains
inallotherdirections.
Forauniaxialtensionstrain,thelateralstrainsare
constrictive.
Conversely,forauniaxialcompressivestrain,the
lateralstrainsareexpansive.
i.e.;thelateralstrainsareoppositeinsigntothe
axialstrain.
Theratiooflateraltoaxialstrainsisknownas
Poissonsratio,.
PoissonsRatio,
ey
ex
ez
ez
Formostmetals,
0.25<<0.35
intheelasticrange
Furthermore:
E 2G(1 )
PlasticDeformation
ElasticPlastic
ElasticPlastic
ElasticPlastic
Sy
Sy
Stress
Sy
0.002
MostMetalsAl,Cu
0.002
0.002
Strain
CladAlAlloys
LowcarbonSteel
MicrostructuralOriginsofPlasticity
Slip,ClimbandSlideofatomsinthecrystalstructure.
SlipandClimboccuratDislocationsandSlideoccurs
atGrainBoundaries.
ElasticandPlasticStrain
P (e,S)
e ee e p
Stress
S
ee
E
e p e ee
TotalStrain
Strain
Plastic
ep
ee
Elastic
The0.2%offsetyieldstress
isthestressthatgivesaplastic
(permanent)strainof0.002.
ElasticRecovery
Loading
Reloading
Stress
Loading
Unloading
Unloading
Strain
elasticstrain
Strain
DuctilityEL%&AR%
Elongation
EL%
L f Lo
Lo
x100
Lo
Lf
AreaReduction
AR%
Ao A f
Ao
Ao
x100
Af
DuctileVsBrittleMaterials
EngineeringStress
OnlyDuctilematerialswillexhibitnecking.
DuctileifEL%>8%(approximately)
BrittleifEL%<5%(approximately)
AX
C
D
Brittle
Ductile
A&B
C&D
EngineeringStrain
Toughness&Resilience
Toughness:Ameasureoftheabilityofa
materialtoabsorbenergywithoutfracture.
(J/m3orN.mm/mm3=MPa)
Resilience:Ameasureoftheabilityofa
materialtoabsorbenergywithoutplasticor
permanentdeformation.
(J/m3orN.mm/mm3=MPa)
Note:Botharedeterminedas
energy/unitvolume
EngineeringStress,S=P/Ao
Toughness,Ut
Su
Sy
X
ef
Ut S de
o
(S y Su ) EL%
100
2
EngineeringStrain,e=L/Lo)
EngineeringStress,S=P/Ao
Resilience,Ur
Su
Sy
ey
Ur S de
o
ey
Sy e y
2
Sy 2
2E
EngineeringStrain,e=L/Lo)
TypicalMechanicalProperties
Metalsinannealed(soft)condition
Material
1040 Steel
1080 Steel
2024 Al Alloy
316 Stainless Steel
70/30 Brass
6-4 Ti Alloy
AZ80 Mg Alloy
Yield Stress
(MPa)
350
380
100
210
75
942
285
Ultimate
Stress (MPa)
520
615
200
550
300
1000
340
Ductility
EL%
30
25
18
60
70
14
11
Elastic Modulus
(MPa)
207000
207000
72000
195000
110000
107000
45000
Poissons
Ratio
0.30
0.30
0.33
0.30
0.35
0.36
0.29