Chapter 3

Structured Query Language

(SQL)
 Introduction to SQL

• SQL functions fit into two broad

categories:
1. Data definition language
• SQL includes commands to create
– Database objects such as tables, indexes, and
views
– Commands to define access rights to those
database objects
• Data manipulation language
• Includes commands to insert, update, delete,
and retrieve data within the database tables 2
 Introduction to SQL (continued)
• SQL is relatively easy to learn
• Basic command set has a vocabulary of
less than 100 words
• Nonprocedural language
• American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) prescribes a standard SQL
• Several SQL dialects exist
3
SQL Data Definition Commands

4
Data Manipulation Commands

5
 Data Definition Commands
• Examine the simple database model
(Figure 6.1) and the database tables that
will form the basis for the many SQL
examples

• Understand the data environment

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The Database Model

7
 Creating the Database
• Two tasks must be completed
– create the database structure
– create the tables that will hold the end-user
data
• First task
– RDBMS creates the physical files that will
hold the database
– Tends to differ substantially from one
RDBMS to another
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 Creating Database Structures

CREATE DATABASE <database name>;

• Example:
– CREATE DATABASE SAMPLE1;

9
 Data Types
• Data type selection is usually dictated by
the nature of the data and by the intended
use

• Pay close attention to the expected use of

attributes for sorting and data retrieval
purposes

10
Some Common SQL Data Types
Data Type Format Description
Numeric INTEGER -2 147 483 648
+2 147 483 647
SMALLINT -32 768 32 767
DECIMAL DECIMAL(5,2) 123.45
(L,D)
Characte CHAR(L) CHAR(5)
r If ‘Ali’, database keeps ‘Ali__’ 2
space wasted.
VARCHAR( VARCHAR(5)
L) If ‘Ali’, database keeps 3 space
only.
Date DATE Year 0001 – 9999
Month 01 –12 11
Day 01 - 31
Some Common SQL Data Types

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 Creating Table Structures

• Use one line per column (attribute) definition

• Use spaces to line up the attribute characteristics and
constraints
• Table and attribute names are capitalized
• NOT NULL specification
• UNIQUE specification
• Primary key attributes contain both a NOT NULL and a
UNIQUE specification
• RDBMS will automatically enforce referential integrity
for foreign keys
• Command sequence ends with a semicolon
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 Other SQL Constraints

• NOT NULL constraint

– Ensures that a column does not accept nulls
• UNIQUE constraint
– Ensures that all values in a column are unique
• DEFAULT constraint
– Assigns a value to an attribute when a new row is added to a
table
• CHECK constraint
– Validates data when an attribute value is entered
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 SQL Indexes
• When a primary key is declared, DBMS
automatically creates a unique index
• Often need additional indexes
• Using the CREATE INDEX command, SQL
indexes can be created on the basis of any
selected attribute
• Composite index
– Index based on two or more attributes
– Often used to prevent data duplication
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 Creating Table Structures

CREATE TABLE <table name>(

<attribute1 name and attribute1 characteristics,
attribute2 name and attribute2 characteristics,
attribute3 name and attribute3 characteristics,
primary key designation,
foreign key designation and foreign key requirements>);

• Example:
CREATE TABLE VENDOR
(v_code varchar(5) not null primary key,
v_name varchar(20),
v_contact varchar(15),
v_areacode integer,
v_phone varchar(10),
v_state char(2),
v_order Char(1));
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 Creating Table Structures
• Example:
CREATE TABLE PRODUCT(
(p_code varchar(10) not null primary key,
p_descript varchar(50),
p_indate date,
p_onhand integer,
p_min integer,
p_price decimal(5,2),
p_discount decimal (3,2),
v_code varchar(5),
foreign key (v_code) references vendor
on delete restrict);

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Data Manipulation Commands
• Adding table rows
• Saving table changes
• Listing table rows
• Updating table rows
• Restoring table contents
• Deleting table rows
• Inserting table rows with a select
subquery 18
 Common SQL Data
Manipulation Commands

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A Data View and Entry Form

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 Inserting Table Rows
• Data Entry
INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES (attribute 1 value, attribute 2
value, … etc.);

• Examples:
– INSERT INTO VENDOR
VALUES(‘21225, ’Bryson, Inc.’, ’Smithson’, ’615’, ’223-3234’, ’TN’,
’Y’);

– INSERT INTO PRODUCT

VALUES(‘11 QER/31’, ’Power painter’, ‘15 psi.’, ‘3-nozzle’, ’07-02-
1999’, 8.5, 109.99, 0.00, 25595);

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 Saving Table Changes
• Changes made to table contents are not
physically saved on disk until
– Database is closed
– Program is closed
– COMMIT command is used
• Syntax
– COMMIT [table names]
– Example: COMMIT PRODUCT;
• Will permanently save any changes made to
any table in the database. 22
 Listing Table Rows

• SELECT
– Used to list contents of table
• Syntax
– SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename
• Columnlist represents one or more attributes,
separated by commas
• Asterisk can be used as wildcard character to
list all attributes
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 Listing Table Rows
• Examples:
SELECT * FROM PRODUCT;

SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE,

P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P-PRICE, P_DISCOUNT,
V_CODE FROM PRODUCT;

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 Updating Table Rows
• UPDATE
– Modify data in a table
• Syntax
– UPDATE tablename
SET columnname = expression [, columname = expression]
[WHERE conditionlist];
– Examples:
UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_INDATE = ‘12/11/96’
WHERE P_CODE = ‘13-Q2/P2’;

• If more than one attribute is to be updated in

the row, separate corrections with commas.
– Examples:
UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_INDATE = ‘12/11/96’, P_PRICE = 15.99,
P_MIN=10 WHERE P_CODE = ‘13-Q2/P2’;
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 Restoring Table Contents

• ROLLBACK
– Used restore the database to its previous
condition
– Only applicable if COMMIT command has not
been used to permanently store the changes in
the database
• Syntax
– ROLLBACK;
• COMMIT and ROLLBACK only work with data
manipulation commands that are used to add,
modify, or delete table rows 26
 Deleting Table Rows

• DELETE
– Deletes a table row
• Syntax
– DELETE FROM tablename
[WHERE conditionlist ];
– Examples:
• DELETE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_CODE = ‘2238/QPD’;
• DELETE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_MIN = 5;

• WHERE condition is optional

• If WHERE condition is not specified, all rows from the
specified table will be deleted.
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 Inserting Table Rows with a
Select Subquery
• INSERT
– Inserts multiple rows from another table
(source)
– Uses SELECT subquery
• Query that is embedded (or nested) inside another
query
• Executed first
• Syntax
– INSERT INTO tablename SELECT columnlist
FROM tablename
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Selecting Rows with Conditional
Restrictions
• Select partial table contents by placing
restrictions on rows to be included in
output
– Add conditional restrictions to the SELECT
statement, using WHERE clause
• Syntax
– SELECT columnlist
FROM tablelist [ WHERE conditionlist ] ;
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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes for VENDOR Code
21344
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE = 21344;

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Comparison Operators

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes for VENDOR Codes
Other than 21344

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE <> 21344;

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes
with a P_PRICE Restriction

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE <= 10;

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes:
The ASCII Code Effect

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_CODE < ‘1558-QW1’;

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes: Date Restriction

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_MIN, P_PRICE, P_INDATE

FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_INDATE >= ’20-Jan-2004;

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 SELECT Statement
with a Computed Column

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE, P_ONHAND* P_PRICE

FROM PRODUCT;

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 SELECT Statement with a
Computed Column and an Alias

SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_ONHAND, P_PRICE, P_ONHAND*

P_PRICE AS TOTAL VALUE
FROM PRODUCT;

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 Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence
Arithmetic Operator Description
+ Add
- Substract
* Multiply
/ Divide
^ Raise to the power of
(Some applications use **
instead of ^.
Table 6.9 The Arithmetic Operators

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 Arithmetic Operators:
The Rule of Precedence
• Perform operations within parentheses

• Perform power operations

• Perform multiplications and divisions

• Perform additions and subtractions

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes:
The Logical OR
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE = 21344 OR V_CODE = 24288;

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes:
The Logical AND
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE < 50
AND P_INDATE > ’15-Jan-2004’;

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 Selected PRODUCT Table
Attributes:
The Logical AND and OR
SELECT P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE, P_PRICE, V_CODE
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE (P_PRICE < 50 AND P_DATE > ’15-Jan-2004’)
OR V_CODE = 24288;

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 Special Operators
• BETWEEN
– Used to check whether attribute value is within
a range
• IS NULL
– Used to check whether attribute value is null
• LIKE
– Used to check whether attribute value
matches a given string pattern
• IN
– Used to check whether attribute value
matches any value within a value list
• EXISTS
– Used to check if a subquery returns any rows 43
 Special Operators
• BETWEEN is used to define range limits.

• Examples:
SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE BETWEEN 50.00 AND 100.00;

SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE P_PRICE > 50.00 AND P_PRICE < 100.00;

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 Special Operators
• IS NULL is used to check whether an attribute
value is null.

• Examples:
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, V_CODE

FROM PRODUCT

WHERE V_CODE IS NULL;

SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_INDATE

FROM PRODUCT

WHERE P_INDATE IS NULL;

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 Special Operators
• LIKE is used to check for similar character
strings.
• Examples:
SELECT V_NAME, V_CONTACT, V_AREACODE, V_PHONE

FROM VENDOR

WHERE V_CONTACT LIKE ‘Smith%’;

SELECT V_NAME, V_CONTACT, V_AREACODE, V_PHONE

FROM VENDOR

WHERE V_CONTACT LIKE ‘SMITH%’;

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 Special Operators

• IN is used to check whether an attribute value

matches a value contained within a (sub)set
of listed values.
SELECT *
FROM PRODUCT
WHERE V_CODE IN (21344, 24288);

• EXISTS is used to check whether an attribute

has value.
DELETE FROM PRODUCT WHERE P_CODE EXISTS;

SELECT * FROM PRODUCT WHERE V_CODE EXISTS;

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 Advanced Data Definition
Commands
• All changes in the table structure are
made by using the ALTER command
– Followed by a keyword that produces
specific change
– Three options are available
• ADD
• MODIFY
• DROP
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 Changing a Column’s Data
Type
• ALTER can be used to change data type

• Some RDBMSs (such as Oracle) do not

permit changes to data types unless the
column to be changed is empty

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 Changing a Column’s Data
Characteristics

• Use ALTER to change data characteristics

– ALTER TABLE <table name> MODIFY (<column name> <new column
characteristics>);

• If the column to be changed already contains data, changes in

the column’s characteristics are permitted if those changes do
not alter the data type

• Examples:
– Changing a Column’s Data Type
ALTER TABLE PRODUCT MODIFY (V_CODE CHAR(5));

– Changing Attribute Characteristics

ALTER TABLE PRODUCT MODIFY (P_PRICEDECIMAL(9,2));
– Adding a New Column to the Table
ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD (P_SALECODE CHAR(1)); 50
The Effect of Data Entry into the
New P_SALECODE Column

UPDATE PRODUCT
SET P_SALECODE = ‘2’
WHERE P_CODE = ‘1546-QQ2’;

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Update of the P_SALECODE
Column in Multiple Data Rows

UPDATE PRODUCT SET P_SALECODE = ‘1’

WHERE P_CODE IN (‘2232/QWE’, ‘2232/QTY’);

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The Effect of Multiple Data
Updates in the PRODUCT
Table (MS Access)

UPDATE PRODUCT
SET P_SALECODE = ‘2’
WHERE P_INDATE < ’25-Dec-2003’;

UPDATE PRODUCT
SET P_SALECODE = ‘1’
WHERE P_INDATE >= 16-Jan-2004’ AND
P_INDATE < ’10-Feb-2004’;
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The Effect of Multiple Data
Updates in the PRODUCT
Table (MS Access)

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 Copying Parts of Tables
• SQL permits copying contents of selected
table columns so that the data need not
be reentered manually into newly created
table(s)

• First create the PART table structure

• Next add rows to new PART table using

PRODUCT table rows
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 PART Attributes Copied
from the PRODUCT Table

CREATE TABLE PART (

PART_CODE CHAR(8) NOT NULL,
PART_DESCRIPT CHAR(35),
PART_PRICE DECIMAL(8,2),
PRIMARY KEY(PART_CODE));

INSERT INTO PART (

PART_CODE, PART_DESCRIPT, PART_PRICE)
SELECT P_CODE, P_DESCRIPT, P_PRICE
FROM PRODUCT;

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 PART Attributes Copied
from the PRODUCT Table

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 Adding or Dropping a Column
• Use ALTER to add a column

– Do not include the NOT NULL clause for new column

– Examples:
ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_CODE);

ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD FOREIGN KEY (V_CODE) REFERENCES

VENDOR;

ALTER TABLE PRODUCT ADD PRIMARY KEY (P_CODE) ADD FOREIGN KEY
(V_CODE) REFERENCES VENDOR;

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 Adding or Dropping a Column
• Use ALTER to drop a column

• Some RDBMSs impose restrictions on the

deletion of an attribute

• DROP TABLE <table name>;

• Example:
DROP TABLE PART;

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 References

• ROB, P. AND CORONEL, C., 2004, Database

Systems. 6th Ed., Thomson Course Technology

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