RESEARCH

METHODS
Scientific Inquiry
Desalegn Massa (BSc, MPHE)

General Description of the

Course

Research is a systematic search for

information and new knowledge.

It is an essential and powerful tool for

accelerating health development.
It is necessary:
To the process of identifying priority problems
To designing and evaluating polices and
program using existing knowledge and available
resources.
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General Description
contd
This course is intended to give to the learner
the proper knowledge and skills in:
Problem identification,
Planning
Implementation and
Evaluation of research undertaking

Core tasks performed in occupational

reality, covered by this course:
Conceptualize and identify a problem in
health system
Describe the contribution of research toward
solving priority problem
Prepare a research proposal by involving all
stakeholders
Implement the study proposal
Analyze and write a report
Communicate and implement research
findings.
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SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

OVERVIEW
Paradigms

Theories

Methodologies

Methods
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PARADIGMS
OVERVIEW
Paradigms

Theories

A broad framework of perception,

understanding, belief within which
theories and practices operate.
A network of coherent ideas
about the nature ofthe world and

Methodologies

the functions of researchers.

A basis for comprehension,

Methods

interpreting socialreality

PARADIGMS contd
It pre-structures perceptions,
conceptualization & understanding
Researchers from different
disciplines[traditions?] may have different
paradigms
is a basic set of beliefs that guide action.
a framework of thought or beliefs through
which one's world or reality is interpreted
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PARADIGMS contd
Paradigm Shift:
A change from one way of thinking to
another
It's a revolution, a transformation, a
sort of metamorphosis.
It just does not happen, but rather it
is driven by agents of change

PARADIGMS contd
Main components of paradigms
1. Ontology
2. Epistemology
3. Methodology
4. Axiology

PARADIGMS contd
Ontology
Ontology is the starting point of all
research, after which ones epistemological
and methodological positions logically
follow.
A dictionary definition of the term may
describe it as:
The image ofsocial reality upon which a theory
is based

ONTOLOGICAL QUESTIONS
Concerned with being--How do you look
atreality?
What is the nature of reality?
Is there a way that things really work?
Are there laws that can explain the
relationship between things?
Is there a Truth that can be known?
Is there a reality out there that good
research can discover?
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EPISTEMIOLOGY
The branch ofphilosophy concerned with the
origin, nature, methods & limits ofknowledge.

Refers to the relationship between the

knower and the known.
concerned with the relationship of the
researcher to what he or she is researching
Is what is learned independent of the
researcher?
Is about social reality
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METHODOLOGY
Focuses on the procedures for
understanding the world
Encompasses the entire research
design:
- Qualitative or quantitative?
- What kind of sampling procedure?

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AXIOLOGY
Concerned with values and ethics
What is the role of values in the research
process?
Should researchers be disinterested
scientists or emotionally engaged in the
research process?
Status characteristics
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PARADIGMS contd

Particular configurations of answers

to ontological, epistemological,
methodological and axiological
questions are organized into
paradigms:
1. Positivist paradigm
2. Interpretive paradigm
3. Critical paradigm
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POSITIVIST PARADIGM
Ontological assumptions:
An objective reality exists
Social reality is stable and patterned,
so it can be known through rigorous
investigation

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POSITIVIST PARADIGM
Epistemological assumption:
what can be learned about social
world exists independently of the
researcher
Axiological assumptions: research
should be objective and value free
Methodological: Reliability, validity
and generalizability are key concerns
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Interpretive paradigm

Epistemological assumption
Researcher interacts with the study phenomenon
The researcher keep his or her assumptions
explicit at all times

Axiological assumptions
The researcher acknowledges his or her values and
biases, as well as,
The value nature of the information gathered from
the field

THEORY
Set of interlinked schemes that explain
some social phenomena
Ideas we have about how the world works
and why people do what they do
A generalizable explanation
An organized framework of knowledge
Causal models
Worldviews

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THEORY
Traditional Model of Science:
Four elements: theory, conceptualization
operationalization, and observation.
Develop a Theory.
Conceptualize it components
Develop operational definitions that specify
the process involved in measuring a
variable.
Observe and measure of what is seen.

Hypotheses
Testable statements derived from
theories
Observations used to test hypotheses
Hypotheses supported or not
supported
Not proven or disproven

When hypotheses are not supported:

Theory is considered falsified (not
useful)

Logic of Inquiry: Research Strategies

Deductive and Inductive Thinking
Deductive Thinking = "top-down" approach.
Narrow innature and is concerned with
testing or confirming hypotheses.
Inductive Thinking = "bottom up approach.
Open ended and exploratory

Deductive Thinking

Inductive

 Deductive
Variables are selected for investigation
from a theory or conceptual model before
the study.
Results are generally presented
quantitatively.

Inductive
Impossible to identify all the important
variables ahead of time.
Results are presented qualitatively, using
words and pictures rather than numbers.

Two Approaches to Research

Quantitative
Emphasizes
numbers,
measurements,
control, and
experimentation
This is the
traditional
approach

Qualitative
Emphasizes
natural settings,
observations,
verbal narratives,
and interpretations
Emerged in the
mid-1970s as an
approach to
educational
research

Goals
Quantitative

Qualitative

Test theory
Establish facts
Show relationships
Predict
Statistically
describe

Understand theory
Develop
understanding
Describe multiple
realities
Capture naturally
occurring behavior

Design
Quantitative

Structured
Predetermined
Formal
Specific

Qualitative
Evolving
Flexible
General

Sample
Quantitative
Large
Representative
Random
Selection
Control Groups
Stratified

Qualitative
Small
Non
representative
Purposeful

Data
Quantitative

Quantities
Counts
Measures
Instruments
Numbers
Statistics

Qualitative

Verbal descriptions
Field Notes
Observations
Documents
Photographs
Peoples own words
Narrative

Methods
Quantitative

Experiments
Quasi-experiments
Surveys
Structured
Interviews
Structured
Observations

Qualitative
Observation
Open-ended
interviewing
Review of
documents and
artifacts

Which Approach is Best?

The problem you are studying determines
which approach to take.
One is not better than the other.
However, some researchers tend to look
down their nose at the qualitative
researcher!

Conceptualizing health system

research and problem identification

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Introduction
Research is
o A systematic search for information and new
knowledge.
o An essential and powerful tool for
accelerating health development.
o Necessary to the process of:
Identifying priority problems
Designing and evaluating polices and
program

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Introduction contd
This course is intended to give
the proper knowledge and skills
in
o problem identification,
o planning
o implementation and
o evaluation of research undertaking

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Types of research
The two classical broad divisions of research
are:
Basic research is necessary to generate new
knowledge and technologies to deal with major
unresolved health problems.
Applied research is necessary to identify
priority problems and to design and evaluate
policies and programs that will deliver the
greatest health benefit, making optimal use of
available resources.
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HEALTH RESEARCH

Is a systematic collection, analysis and

interpretation of data to solve health
problem

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PURPOSE OF HEALTH RESEARCH

To generate knowledge essential to
effectively
promote the health of the population
Without this knowledge, effective action is
impossible because it has no logical or empirical
basis

To making progress in health

Progress in health (medicine) can only be
achieved if good quality information are
generated through research to guide
interventions and to inform the general public.
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FUNDAMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL
ASSUMPTIONS

1. Human disease does not occur at

random.
2. Human disease has causal and
preventive factors that can be
identified
through
systematic
investigation.
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IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Guiding action
Developing new tool
Saving resources
Multiplying benefits
Enhancing capacity development
process

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Standard scientific/research methods

- Epidemiology
- Demography
- Health service research

Other methods
- Expert assessment
- Community assessment

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THE ICE BERG PHENOMENON

Routine information comes mainly from people
who attend the health services
Proper and unbiased assessment of health
conditions is important for good public health
practice!!!
PEOPLE SEEN
CURATIVE CARE
PREVENTIVE CARE

People not
seen
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 Research= identifying problem and designing

appropriate action
1. Health facility
History
Diagnosis

physical examination

2. Community
Talk with
Records
Community Diagnosis
Community

Tests

Surveys

=> In both established methods must be used!!!

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RESEARCH MUST BE

1. Purposeful: what do you want to

contribute?
2. Targeted: who are the audiences?
3. Credible: consider sources of
information, method of data collection,
personnel involved...
4. Timely: is the information needed?
* Research is done to find solutions to health
problems.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD
RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Have a clear statement of the problem

Have clear plans- objectives & methods
Have clear vision of the outcome
Builds on existing data
New data should be collected as required
and be organized

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HOW DO WE CHOOSE A RESEARCH

TOPIC?
Career development
Priority research areas
Relevance - (How widespread is the problem?
Who is affected? How severe is the problem?)
Avoidance of duplication - has the topic been
researched?
Feasibility - complexity of the problem Versus
resources
Political acceptability
Applicability
Urgency of data needed
Ethical acceptability
Resource availability
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OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH
PROCESS

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1. PLANNING RESEARCH

=>Developing proposal
A written proposal is important:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

To
To
To
To
To

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clearly define the problem under study

avoid re- inventing the wheel
clearly show the methodology to be used
be cost and time conscious
be clear about what to expect at the end

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2. COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

A. introduction/Statement of the problem
B. Literature review
C. Objectives
D. Methodology
E. Ethical considerations
G. Dissemination and utilization of results
F. Work plan
H. Cost of the project
I. Assurance of the investigator
J. Advisor (approval)
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A. STATEMENT OF THE
PROBLEM/INTRODUCTION
1.

Concise description of the nature of the problem:

- What is it?
- Magnitude & Distribution (who, where, when)
- Severity and consequences
2. Systematically elucidate why the proposed research
should be undertaken:
Brief description of any attempts to solve the problem
in the past (successes, failures and challenges)
Provide convincing argument that available
knowledge is insufficient to solve the problem under
study
3. Describe the significance of the proposed study:
-what do you hope to achieve with the study results?
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B. LITERATURE REVIEW
Search widely:
- Library
- Electronic search engines
- other literatures
Evaluate the relevance of the literature to your
study
Include information directly relevant to your study
Be concise

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LITERATURE REVIEW...

Include:
- Detailed account of the subject matter you want
to research
- Entertain confounding factors and other related
matter only pertaining to the current research
- Avoid repetitions and lengthy statements
(Maximum 5-7 pages)

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LITERATURE REVIEW...

Avoid reinventing the

wheel/avoidance of duplicating
previous work
Learn the gaps
Learn the various methods used
=> An opportunity to develop
professional confidence in the field of
study!!!
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C. OBJECTIVES

General objective:
- Summarizes what is to be achieved by the
study
- Should be clearly related to the statement of
the
problem
Specific objectives:
- Logically connected parts of the general
objective
- Focus the study on the essentials
- Direct the design of the investigation
- Orient collection, analysis and interpretation of
the
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D. FORMULATING OBJECTIVES: RESEARCH

QUESTIONS VS. HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis requires sufficient knowledge
of the problem to be able to predict
relationships among factors which can
then explicitly tested.
Research questions are formulated when
the investigators do not have enough
insight into the problem being studied.

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FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH QUESTION

Defining a problem:
- First step & the most difficult in research
- Tendency for the beginner to ask diffuse or vague
question
- New researchers wish to make important
discoveries
- Impractical desire leads to failure
- Sciences often progress in small steps
- Thus, research problems must be stated in terms
of clear, simple and answerable questions
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FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH QUESTION...

=>Need to review relevant literature:
- To learn about what is already known
pertaining to the study question: Research
should
- bridge the gap of information
- be need based
- be problem oriented/problem
solving
- To be familiar with problems that others
have faced
- To learn about the study methods
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employed

FORMULATION OF A RESEARCH QUESTION...

- To be familiar with pertinent variables to be
measured or controlled
- To realize how little is known about the
particular topic one wishes to investigate
- To get encouragement to proceed with the
proposed study or be convinced to switch to
unexplored related problems
- Need for enough justification to conduct
research
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E. CRITERIA FOR SETTING RESEARCH

QUESTIONS/OBJECTIVES
1. Focused- each covering a single point
2. Ordered- in logical sequence
3. Realistic- and feasible to answer
4. Operational- using action verbs such as:
- Determine
- Verify
- Identify
- Describe
- Assess
- Compare
- Calculate
- establish
- Explore
5. Measurable- outcomes at the end of the
research
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F. METHODOLOGY
What is the choice of the study design?
What would be the study population?
What would be the required size of the study
subjects?
How would the study subjects
selected/sampled?
Data collection: What, How, Who, Where,
When?
Data analysis-Coding, entering, cleaning,
storing, recording, choice of statistical
methods
Operational definitions of crucial concepts
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G. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Professional obligation to safeguard the
safety of study subjects
Refer to national and international guidelines
Describe potential ethical concerns and
mechanisms to minimize harms and
maximize benefits
Every research can potentially cause ethical
concerns!!!
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H. DISSEMINATION AND UTILIZATION OF

RESULTS
Briefly describe the dissemination plan
Feedback to the community
Feedback to local communities
Identify relevant authorities that need to
be informed
Scientific publication
Presentation in meetings/conferences
Briefly describe how the study results can
be best translated into application.
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I. BUDGET- COST OF THE PROJECT

Clearly identify the resource requirements
Be realistic in costing/budgeting
The work-plan is a good starting point for
preparing budget-budget for activities
Prepare budget justification
Include 5-10% contingency
Identify funding resources & prepare
budget according to the required format.

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J. YOUR PROPOSAL
Simple and clear
Good statement of the problem: why do
you want to study?
Pertinent literature review
Few objectives
Clear & detailed methodological
description

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K. SEE TO WHOLE PICTURE

=>

Objectives

Process
_

Selection of study population

- Use appropriate methods
- - Use appropriate tools

-----------------

Outcome

What would be the result?

-What can be concluded? Dummy tables,
-What can be recommended?
conclusions and
_

recommendations

Always focus on your objectives!!!

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L. YOUR RESEARCH: IS IT IMPORTANT?

=>
Literature
Research
Production
Science is a sum of cumulative knowledge:
Previous researches are the basis for yours and
your work will be the basis for future research.

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M. CONSULTATION

Use advisors as much as possible

Timely
Be selective: whom to consult

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N. VISUALIZE YOUR THESIS

Cover pages
Acknowledgement
Abstract (1)
Introduction (1-2)
Literature review (5-7)
Methods (4-7)
Results (7-10)
Discussion (5-7)
References (1-2)
Annexes

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24-36 pages
Only the main body

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O.MANAGING YOUR RESEARCH PROJECT

Keep good note
Establish good communication with your advisor
(s)
Keep time and promises: motivates your advisor
(s)
Keep your document to a manageable size:
readability and clear message
Lead your research work: be ready to manage
crisis
Advisors: advisors, assessors but not dictators

Do your research heartily!!!

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Additional about title and abstract

Title
%

Remember that the title will be read by thousands

of people
- Perhaps few people will read the entire paper
- All words in the title should be chosen with great
care
Length of a title:
- Occasionally titles are too short
- Much more often, titles are too long
- Long titles are often less meaningful than short ones
- Words such as Studies on, Investigations on and
Observations on are waste words
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TITLE PAGE...
A good title is defined as the fewest
possible words that can adequately
describe the contents of the study
Title is a label, it is not a sentence
Titles should almost never contain
abbreviations

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B. SUMMARY
A concise summary of the material presented
in the proposal, it is a mini version of the
paper
Though it appears at the front, it is written
last
These materials are condensed to a page or
less (< 250 words)
A well prepared summary enables reader to:
- Identify the basic content of a document quickly &
accurately
- Determines its relevance to their interest, and
- Decide whether they
need to read the
document in
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its entirely

SUMMARY
The summary should:
- State the significance and need for the study
- State the objectives and scopes of the
investigation
- Describe the methods employed
- Summarize important findings (In case of final
report)
- State the principal conclusions (In case of final
report)

Summary should never give any information

or conclusion that is not stated in the paper
Reference to the literature must not be cited
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