Un4Ch11 Anatomy and Physiology I.

Unit 4 Nervous System continued: Chapter 11
Chapter 11: Nervous System II

Divisions Of The Nervous System
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
I. Protection of the CNS.

The brain and spinal cord are protected
(surrounded) by bones, membranes, and fluid.
A. Bones
1. The brain is encased by eight skull bones (i.e.
cranium review Ch. 7 to name the eight bones).
2. The spinal cord is encased by approximately 30
bones called vertebrae (i.e. vertebral column).
B. Meninges
The membranes around the brain and spinal cord
are called meninges There are three distinct
layers.
2
Meninges of brain (Seeley fig.)
Dura mater
subdural space
Arachnoid
subarachnoid space
Pia mater
Meninges Surround the CNS

a. Dura mater:
Outermost membrane, attached to inner periosteum of skull

tough, white fibrous CT
Contains many blood vessels & nerves
Note: DM splits into 2 layers where it encloses the dural
sinuses (that collect venous blood from the brain).
b. Arachnoid Mater:
Middle layer
Thin net-like membrane.
Beneath the arachnoid mater lies a wide space called the
sub-arachnoid space.
This space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and
serves as a cushion for the brain.
c. Pia Mater:
Inner layer, clings to brain surface over thin delicate CT

Many nerves & blood vessels = nourishment
Dips into grooves & contours.
* See text: subdural hematoma & meningitis.
Meninges of CNS (brain) (Hole fig.)

Dura mater
subdural space
Arachnoid
subarachnoid space
Pia mater
Cranial Meninges (fig.)
Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid

Meninges around Spinal cord:
a. Note that the dura mater is not attached to bone of the
vertebra (as in the brain where it is attached to the skull).
b. The space between the dura mater and the bone is called
the epidural (subdural) space and is filled with loose CT
and fat.
c. CSF fills the subarachnoid space and central canal.
Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) [More on this topic later]
1. CSF total volume in above spaces = 150 mL.

a. About 1 liter is secreted daily to replenish the
circulating 150 ml every 3-4 hours.
2. The constant movement of CSF due to cilia on
ependymal cells.
3. Functions of CSF:
a. mechanical protection (i.e. cushion)
b. chemical protection (i.e. ions, hormones)
c. circulation.
Spinal cord,
dorsal root ganglia,
etc. (c.s.)
Protective layers around spinal cord (Hole fig.)
Meninges of spinal cord (Seeley fig.)
10
Dorsal root ganglion, Golgi stain [labeled photo]
11
Spinal cord (Hole fig.)
The spinal cord is a nerve column that

passes downward from brain into the
vertebral canal. It is part of the CNS.
Spinal nerves extend to/from the
spinal cord and are part of the PNS. 12
Gross Structure of Spinal Cord:

See text Figure.
1. Length = about 17 inches
a. Start = foramen magnum
b. End = tapers to point (conus medullaris) and [in
adult] terminates near the intervertebral disc that
separates the 1st - 2nd lumbar (L1-L2) vertebra
2. Contains 31 segments (and therefore gives rise to 31
pairs of spinal nerves).
3. Note cervical and lumbar enlargements.

4. Note cauda equina ("horse's tail) in which the lower
lumbar and sacral nerves travel downward (i.e. lower
spinal nerves must "chase" their points of exit).
5. Note filum terminale that represents distal portion of
the tail (pia mater).
13
Spinal cord.
Dorsal view
[photo]
1. Pia mater
2. Denticulate ligament
3. Motor root of 7th
thoracic nerve
4. Sensory root of 7th
thoracic nerve
5. Subarachnoid space
6. Subdural space
7. Superior articular
process of 9th thoracic
vertebra
8. Epidural fat with
internal vertebral
venous plexus
9. Ligamentum flavum
10. 10th thoracic vertebra
Dorsal
root
ganglion
http://
indy.radiology.uiowa.edu/Providers/Text
books/BrainAnatomy/BrainAnatomy.html
14
Spinal cord: dissection [photo]
15
Spinal cord
(Marieb lab manual)
16
Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

Essential
Terminology
White matter:
Nerve (PNS)
Tract in (CNS):
ascending
(sensory) or
descending
(motor)
Gray matter:
Ganglion (PNS)
Nucleus (in CNS)
horns (columns)
of gray matter in
spinal cord
More histology of the cord and

spinal ganglia in Lab materials.
17
Cross-Sectional Anatomy of Spinal Cord

See text Figure Ch. 11.
A cross-section of the spinal cord

resembles a butterfly with its
wings outspread (gray matter)
surrounded by white matter.
1. Gray matter = motor
neuron and interneuron cell
bodies:
a. posterior (dorsal) horns,
b. lateral horns, and
c. anterior (ventral) horns.
2. Note location of:
a. central canal (lined with
ependymal cells),
b. gray commissure,
c. anterior median fissure,
d. posterior median sulcus.
3. White matter =
myelinated axons:
a. Locations:
posterior (dorsal)
funiculi,
lateral funiculi, and
anterior (ventral)
funiculi.
b. The white matter of the
spinal cord is also called

white columns, and is
made up of major nerve
pathways called nerve
tracts
provide a 2-way system

of communication via
ascending and descending
tracts.
See text Figures and Table Ch.
11.
18
Cross section of spinal cord (Seeley fig.)
19
White matter of the spinal cord:

1. In general, ascending
tracts are located in the
posterior (dorsal)
columns and conduct
sensory (afferent)
impulses from body
parts to brain.
2. In general, descending
tracts are located in the
anterior (ventral)
columns and conduct
motor (efferent)
impulses from brain to
effectors.
General characteristics of
nerve tracts:
Most cross over
Most consist of 2-3
successive neurons
Most exhibit
somatotropy (i.e.
tracts from/to upper
body are located on
outside, tracts from/to
lower body on inside)
All pathways are
paired (right and left).
20
Spinal cord cross section (Hole fig.)
21
Spinal cord, nerve roots, spinal ganglion [LUMEN photo]

Central canal
White matter of cord
Dorsal root
Dorsal root ganglion
Ventral horn of gray matter
Ventral root
22
Spinal cord and vertebra, c.s.
Vertebra
Dorsal root ganglion
23
Cross-Sectional Anatomy of Spinal Cord

(continued)
Important Features:
a. Ventral root: Motor
b. Dorsal root: Sensory
Dorsal Root Ganglion (DRG) (= spinal ganglion).
1. Ganglion = a cluster of neuron cell bodies outside
the CNS
2. DRG contains the cell bodies of sensory (afferent)
neurons bringing impulses to the CNS.
c. The fusion of the dorsal and ventral roots designates
the beginning of the spinal nerve which then passes
through its intervertebral foramen.
Caution: do not confuse these with ANS ganglia which
are further from the cord and are visceral motor in
24
function.
Spinal cord, nerve roots, spinal ganglion [Wards photo]
Dorsal root
(sensory)
Spinal ganglion
Ventral root
(motor)
25
Dorsal Root Ganglion and Ventral Root

Spinal ganglion
Dorsal root
(sensory)
Ventral root
(motor)
26
Dorsal root ganglion [labeled photo]
27
Spinal ganglion = Dorsal root ganglion

C.S. Nerve root
Ganglion
28
Spinal Cord C.S.
[photo]
29
Spinal cord c.s. [photo]
30
Spinal
Dorsal
root
cord c.s. [photo from KU]
Ventral horn
gray matter
Ventral fissure
31
Spinal Cord : Cross section. Weigert stain. [Wards photo]

Myelin sheaths of the nerve fibers are stained blue, thus showing fiber tracts.
32
Spinal Cord : C.S., Silver. Gross structures of spinal cord.
Gray matter: H-shaped; large motor neurons & fiber bundles.

White matter: Gray-stained areas surrounding H, ascending
and descending nerve tracts.
33
Spinal cord, c.s. Golgi stain [photo]
34
Spinal cord, c.s.

Golgi stain [photo]
35
Neurons of Spinal Cord

White matter
Gray matter
36
Spinal cord, neurons in gray matter, Weigert stain
[Wards
photo]
White matter
Gray Matter
Myelinated fibers (stained black).
Ventral horn, large motor neurons.
37
Spinal cord, neurons in gray matter, Weigert stain
[Wards
Large
photo]motor neurons with Nissl bodies. Large, lightly stained nucleus, large
dark nucleolus. Glial cell nuclei stained with carmine.
Myelinated nerve fibers blue, erythrocytes in capillaries black.
38
Spinal cord:
Know these Structural Features
(and their functions)
Gray commissure
Central canal
Anterior (ventral) white commissure
Anterior gray horn
Posterior (dorsal) gray horns
Lateral gray horns
Ventral white column (funiculus): divided into
tracts (fasciculi)
Dorsal white column
Lateral white columns
Examples of ascending tracts
Examples of descending tracts
39
Cross section of spinal cord : Tracts (Seeley fig.)
40
Ascending and descending pathways in cord [labeled

photo]
41
Spinal cord, c.s.: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral

regions of spinal cord of cat
Cervical
Lumbar
Thoracic
Sacral
42
Neural Pathways
A Neural Pathway = the route traveled by a nerve
impulse through the nervous system.
Features to note:
Is it the pathway motor (efferent, descending) or
sensory (afferent, ascending)?
How many neurons are involved?
How many synapses and where are they?
Synapses will occur in or near Gray matter (because
dendrites are shorter than axons, so synapses are
generally near neuron cell bodies).
The axons travel in white matter (fiber tracts or PNS
nerves).
Usually the fiber tracts will cross over RL or L R.
Note where this decussation occurs.
Examples follow...
43
Path of sensory impulses (Hole fig.)
44
Lateral spinothalamic tract (Seeley fig.)
45
Anterior Spinothalamic tract (Seeley fig.)
46
Dorsal column pathway (Seeley fig.)
47
Posterior spinothalamic tract (Seeley fig.)
48
Path of motor impulses (Hole fig.)
49
Descending pathways (Seeley fig.)
50
Direct pathways (Seeley fig.)
51
Indirect pathways (Seeley fig.)
52
Spinal Reflexes
1. The simplest demonstration
of a nerve pathway is a
reflex arc.
See text figure Ch. 11.
involves 2-3 neurons

involuntary response
does not have to involve
the brain
Examples include:
knee-jerk (text Fig.)

withdrawal (text Figs.)
sneezing
blinking
Uses of Reflexes: See text
Clinical Application.
a. Clinically, to insure proper
transmission of a NI
b. to prevent tissue damage.
2. Components of a Reflex arc:

See text Table Ch. 11.
1. A receptor, which reacts
to a stimulus
2. A sensory neuron, that
conducts the afferent
(sensory) impulses to the
CNS
3. The integration center,
consisting of one to several
synapses in the CNS.
4. A motor neuron, that
conducts the efferent
(motor) impulses from the
CNS to an effector
5. An effector, the muscle
fibers or gland that respond
to the motor impulse by
contracting or secreting a 53
hormone.
Reflex Arc (Seeley fig.)
54
Reflexes
Simplest reflex: one synapse, two neurons
Example: stretch reflex (knee jerk)
Somatic
Ipsilateral
The sensory feedback to the CNS is provided by:

muscle spindle
as seen in knee jerk (a deep tendon reflex)
Polysynaptic reflexes:
Interneuron (association neuron)

Pain
Ipsilateral
Effect to more than one muscle via several motor
neurons
Intersegmental
Example: flexor reflex (withdrawal reflex)
55
Knee jerk reflex (Hole fig.)
The Knee-jerk
reflex is a Stretch
reflex
56
Withdrawal reflex (Hole fig.)
57
Spinal cord reflexes part 1 (Seeley fig.)
58
59
60
61
62
Major structures of the brain: Sag. Sec. (Hole fig.)
63
Marieb Ex. 17
64
THE BRAIN
The brain is the largest and most
complex portion of the nervous
system. It occupies the cranial
cavity and is composed of one
hundred billion multipolar
neurons. The brain oversees
the function of the entire body
and also provides
characteristics like personality.
Regions of Brain
The brain is composed of
4 major portions: the
cerebrum, cerebellum,
diencephalon and
brain stem.
See text Figure Ch. 11 and
reference plate.
Parts of the Brain

Discussed in the following
sequence:
Cerebrum (7/8 of human
brain by weight)
(Telencephalon)
Diencephalon:
thalamus and
hypothalamus
Brain stem:
Mesencephalon
(midbrain)
Pons (Metencephalon),
Medulla
(Myelencephalon)
Cerebellum
(Metencephalon)
65
Development of the brain (Seeley fig.)
66
Marieb lab manual
67
Cerebrum
1. Cerebrum = the largest
portion of the brain. It is
divided into two cerebral
hemispheres.
See text Figures Ch. 11.
a. Hemispheres are
connected by a deep bridge
of nerve fibers called the
corpus callosum
b. Surface ridges are called
convolutions (gyri)
c. Each hemisphere is divided
into lobes which are
named for the bones that
cover them including
frontal, parietal,
temporal, and occipital
lobes. See text Figure Ch. 11.
d. Convolutions* are separated

by two types of grooves:
sulci = shallow groove

1. central sulcus
(frontal/parietal)
2. lateral sulcus
(temporal/others)
fissure = deep groove

1. longitudinal fissure
separates the two cerebral
hemispheres.
2. transverse fissure
(cerebrum/cerebellum)
* See green box in text, Ch. 11
concerning a disorder called
lissencephaly (smooth
brain).
68
Brain
Sagittal Section
[labeled photo]
Pons
http://indy.radiology.uiowa.ed
u/Providers/Textbooks/BrainAn
atomy/Ch5Text/Section03.html
69
Brain Sagittal Section (key to previous slide)

1. Medial frontal gyrus
2. Cingulate sulcus
3. Cingulate gyrus
4. Central sulcus
5. Paracentral lobule
6. Callosal sulcus
7. Isthmus of cingulate gyrus
8. Subparietal sulcus
9. Precuneus
10. Parieto-occipital sulcus
11. Cuneus
12. Calcarine sulcus or fissure
13. Rostrum of corpus
callosum
14. Genu of corpus callosum
15. Trunk of corpus callosum
16. Splenium of corpus

callosum
17. Choroid plexus in
interventricular foramen
18. Massa intermedia of the
Thalamus
19. Habenular trigone
20. Hypothalamic sulcus
21. Pineal body
22. Anterior commissure
23. Tectum of midbrain
24. Mamillary body
25. Medial longitudinal
fasciculus
26. Choroid plexus of 4th
ventricle
70
Cerebrum
Cortex: surface gray matter
(only 2-4 mm thick)
White matter below
Gyri = convolutions (folds)
Fissures (deep grooves)
Longitudinal fissure
(divides left and right
hemispheres)
Falx cerebri: dura mater

between the hemispheres
Sulci (shallow grooves)
Corpus Callosum:
transverse fibers of white
matter; connects the two
hemispheres
Transverse fissure:
separates cerebrum from
cerebellum
Lobes (5) of cerebral

hemispheres: marked by
fissures or sulci
Frontal lobe [separated from
parietal lobe by central sulcus]

Precentral gyrus = part of
the frontal lobe; marks the
primary motor area of
cerebral cortex
Parietal lobe
Post central gyrus = part of

the parietal lobe; marks the
general sensory area
Temporal lobe [separated
from frontal lobe by lateral
sulcus]
Occipital lobe [separated

from parietal lobe by
parieto-occipital sulcus]
Insula deep within the
lateral fissure
71
Lobes and Functional Areas of Cerebrum (Hole

fig.)
72
Cerebrum (continued)
White matter of cerebrum
Association fibers:
gyrus to gyrus in the same
hemisphere
Commissural fibers:
Cross from one hemisphere
to the other
Examples:
corpus callosum
anterior commissure
posterior commissure
Projection fibers:
To descending tracts (motor)

From ascending tracts
(sensory)
Internal capsule: white
matter tracts connecting the
cortex with the brain stem
(and cord)
Cerebral Nuclei = Basal

Ganglia [deep gray matter
of cerebrum]
Corpus striatum: nuclei
Caudate and
putamen: control
large subconscious
movements of
skeletal muscle
Globus pallidus:
control muscle tone
Lentiform
Amygdaloid (part of
limbic system)
73
Cerebral medullary tracts (Seeley fig.)
Coronal section
74
Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex: Functional Areas

Cerebrum: Composition
Bulk of cerebrum is white
matter*.
* bundles of myelinated nerve
fibers (by oligodendrocyte)
Cerebral cortex or the
outer portion of cerebrum is
composed of gray matter*.
* bundles of neuron cell
bodies.
Cerebral cortex: See text

Figure Ch. 11.
Responsible for all
conscious behavior by
containing three kinds of
functional areas which
include motor, sensory
and association areas:
A. Motor areas:
control muscular
movement
B. Sensory areas:
interpret sensory
impulses
C. Association areas:
emotional and inductive
processes
75
Cerebrum (very low magnification)

Molecular layer (closest to the surface)
Pyramidal cell layers (gray matter of the cortex)
White matter of cerebrum (fiber tracts)
76
Cerebral cortex
77
Cerebral cortex
Surface
78
Cerebral Cortex
Surface
79
Neurons of Cerebral Cortex

To surface
80
Pyramidal Neurons of Cerebral Cortex

To surface
81
Neurons of Cerebral Cortex

To surface
82
Pyramidal neurons of cerebral cortex (from LUMEN)

To surface
83
Pyramidal neurons of cerebral cortex (from LUMEN)
Apical dendrite
Axon
84
Pyramidal neurons of cerebral cortex
85
86

To surface
87
Pyramidal neurons
of cerebral cortex
To surface
88

To surface
89

To surface
90

dendrites
To surface
axon
91
Functional areas of cerebral cortex (Seeley fig.)
Left
Brocas and Wernickes areas are located only in the persons

dominant hemisphere (Left for ~ 95% of right-handed people).
92
Cerebral Cortex: Functional Areas

Also see Marieb illustrations.
1. Motor Areas of cerebral

cortex are confined to the
frontal cortex:
a. Primary motor cortex
initiates all voluntary
muscle movements
located in the gyrus
just anterior to the
central sulcus
*precentral gyrus.
b. Broca's area
motor speech area
located in frontal lobe,
above temporal lobe in
the persons dominant
hemisphere (Left for
90-95% of righthanded people)
2. Sensory Areas of cerebral

cortex are concerned with
conscious awareness of
sensations and are located
in the cortex of the
remaining three lobes.
a. Primary
somatosensory cortex
receives information
from skin receptors (i.e.
temperature, touch,
pressure, & pain).
located in postcentral
gyrus of parietal cortex
93

Marieb lab manual
94

2. Sensory Areas of cerebral
cortex (cont.)
b. Visual (Cortex) Area
receive incoming information
from vision receptors (in eye)
located in occipital cortex.
c. Auditory (Cortex) Area
receive incoming information
from hearing receptors (in
ear)
located in temporal cortex.
d. Gustatory cortex
Not Pictured in text Figure.
receives incoming
information from taste
receptors in taste buds
located in insular cortex just
above the temporal lobe.
3. Association Areas of
cerebral cortex
a. General:
include areas that are not
directly involved in motor
or sensory function.
are involved in many traits.
are usually interconnected.
involve all four lobes.
b. Association traits include:
analyzing & interpreting
sensory experiences
help provide memory,
reasoning, verbalizing,
judgement and emotions.
* See green box concerning
dyslexia in Ch. 11.
* See Brain Function Table Ch. 11.
95
Topography of somatic sensory and motor cortex (Seeley

fig.)
96
A. Motor Areas of Cerebral Cortex

1. Primary Motor Area
Precentral gyrus of frontal
lobe
Has regions controlling
specific muscles (of
opposite side).
Pyramidal neurons: fibers
exit the cortex, decussate
in the brain stem, and
descend in the lateral
corticospinal tracts of the
cord
2. Premotor Area
Generates impulses for
learned motor activities;
skilled movements
(complex sequences) e.g.,
writing
3. Frontal Eye Field Area

Frontal cortex
Voluntary visual scanning;
movements of the eye e.g.,
searching
4. Language Areas (Usually

left hemisphere)
Broca's Area (= motor
speech area)
In left frontal lobe;
Signals to premotor
regions that control
muscles of larynx, mouth
and to primary motor
area to control breathing
muscles; also signals
Sensory areas to
translate speech or
97
words into thought
B. Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex

1. General Sensory Area =
somatosensory cortex =
primary somesthetic area:
Location: directly
posterior to the central

sulcus
In the post central
gyrus
Extends from the
longitudinal fissure to
the lateral cerebral
sulcus
Function
Receives sensations from
cutaneous, muscular, and
visceral receptors
Each point on the cortex
receives sensations from
specific parts of the body
(opposite side)
Size of the cortex sensory
area receiving stimuli
depends on the number
of receptors
So, sensory information
from the lips and digits is
projected onto large
areas but the trunk has a
smaller representation 98
on the cortex
B. Sensory Areas of Cerebral Cortex (continued)

2. Somesthetic Association
Area
= sensory association area
Location: posterior to
general sensory area
Function: receives input
from thalamus, other
lower portions of brain,
and from general
sensory area of cortex.
Interprets and
integrates sensations
Determine shape and

texture of object (without
looking)
Determine the
orientation of felt objects
Sense the relative
positions of body parts
Storage of memories of
past sensory
experiences. Thus, you
can compare sensations
with previous
experiences.
99

3. Primary Visual Area
= visual cortex
Medial surface of
occipital lobe
Receives sensory
impulses from eyes.
Interprets shape and
color
4. Visual Association Area
Occipital lobe
Receives sensory input
from the primary visual
area and from the
thalamus. Relates present
to past visual experiences
with recognition and
evaluation of what is seen.
5. Primary Auditory Area

Temporal lobes
Pitch and rhythm
6. Auditory Association Area

Determines if sound is
speech, music, noise;
interprets meaning of
speech
7. Primary Gustatory Area

= Taste area
Interprets taste
8. Primary Olfactory Area

Medial aspect of temporal
lobe and deep in cerebrum
(not shown on fig.)
100
Interprets smell

9. Gnostic Area =
General Interpretive Area
A common integrative
(association) area
Parietal lobe (mostly)
Receives input from all
sensory association
areas plus thalamus and
lower brain stem.
Integrates information to
produce thought
Signals to other parts of
brain regarding
responses
101
C. Association Areas (as already described)

Association tracts that
connect motor and

sensory areas
Large regions of cortex
Function:
memory, emotion,
reasoning, etc.
You need to be able to

name and diagram the
location of the major
cortical motor, sensory,
and association areas.
102
Hemisphere Dominance (Brain

Lateralization)
Most of our basic functions
(sensory & motor) are
equally controlled by both
left & right hemispheres
(remember communication
exists through corpus
callosum).
This language
hemisphere is considered
the dominant
However, for some

association functions,
one hemisphere has
greater control over
language-related
activities including
speech, writing, reading,
mathematics and logic.
b. The other hemisphere (nondominant, usually the right

hemisphere) controls
hemisphere.
a. In most people, the left
hemisphere is dominant.
orientation in space, art

and musical appreciation
and emotions.
[See the next slides for more
103
on hemispheric dominance]
Transverse section through corpus callosum

[photo]
http://laxmi.nuc.ucla.edu:8888/Teachers/pphelps/Published_Trays/NS_
104
Brain Lateralization (hemispheric dominance)

Two hemispheres of
cerebrum:
Some specialized functions
are found in only one
hemisphere
Left Hemisphere:
Dominant in 90% of
right-handed people;
Dominant in 64% of
left-handed people
Right hand control
Spoken and written
language
Numerical and analytical
skills
Reasoning
Right Hemisphere (or the

non-dominant hemisphere)
Left hand control
Musical and artistic
awareness
Space and pattern
perception (e.g., 3-D)
Insight, imagination
Mental images of sight,
sound, touch, taste, and
smell in order to
compare
Usually, information is
readily passed between L&R
hemispheres through
105
commissures.
Memory:
Memory is the consequence
of learning.
Whereas learning is the
acquisition of new
knowledge, memory is the
persistence of that
learning, with the ability to
access it at a later time.
Know the brain structures
involved and their locations.
Two types of memory: See
text Ch. 11.
1. Short Term (this is not
sufficient for learning!)
2. Long Term (this can fade
too if you dont practice,
rehearse)
LTM has links to olfactory
pathways and basic
emotional pathways.
Brain structures required to

consolidate STM into LTM:
Hippocampus, amygdala,
and cerebral cortex near the
hippocampus.
Hippocampus: process new
facts and send them elsewhere
for storage. Also, olfactory
input is received here. And, the
hippocampus is involved in
controlling emotions.
Possible pathways: Information
enters the cerebral cortex (via
senses) then goes to
hippocampus then deeper into
the brain.and to cortical
assoc. areas.
See assigned readings on
\\facstaff\biology Newsweek
article, etc. and text.
106
Limbic System (Seeley fig.)

Hippocampus and
Amygdala:
function in
consolidation
of memory
107
Memory (cont.)
Hippocampus (medial
temporal lobe): for everyday
memory of personal events
(episodic memory). Promotes
flexible associations and access
to the whole knowledge
structure from any point.
But accumulation of factual

knowledge (semantic
memory) is not fully
dependent on the
hippocampus.
Parahippocampal (cortex near
but not in hippoc.) cortical
regions are important for
stimulus recognition and
stimulus association
learning.
Source: Vargha-Khadem et al.
1997. Science 277: 376-380.
To enhance LTM and learn

new information:
Actively use multiple

pathways (see, say, write,
draw, etc.): Reading over
and over is NOT enough.
Consciously and actively

make associations:
Understand the new

information and relate it to
what you already know.
Memorized facts stored
without context will fade
quickly! Youll also be
vulnerable to silly
mistakes when your
memory is less than perfect.
Store memories in a rich

elaborate form (details
are important).
108
Rehearse. (use or lose it)
Cerebrum : Basal ganglia (nuclei)

Masses of gray matter located deep

within the white matter of the
cerebral hemispheres.
Serve as relay stations for
outgoing motor impulses from
the brain.
i.e. from primary motor cortex in
frontal cortex to basal ganglia and
then through brain stem, down
spinal cord, etc.
* See Clinical Application Ch. 11 concerning
Parkinsons Disease.
109
Basal nuclei (Seeley fig.)
Basal nuclei: relay stations for outgoing motor impulses

from the brain
110
Coronal sec. of left cerebral hemisphere (Hole fig)
111
Coronal Sec. [labeled photo]
112
Limbic System:
Emotion; memory; involuntary behavior
Includes parts of the cerebral hemispheres
and diencephalon
Cerebrum
Limbic lobe
Hippocampus
Amygdaloid nucleus (part of basal ganglia)
Diencephalon
Mammillary bodies (of hypothalamus)
Anterior nucleus of thalamus
113
Limbic System (Seeley fig.)
Limbic System: Emotion; memory; involuntary behavior

Includes parts of the cerebral hemispheres and
114
diencephalon
Coronal Section
[labeled photo]
115
Coronal Section: Lentiform nucleus
[photo]
Lateral to the internal capsule (genu) are the three parts of

the lentiform nucleus, namely the internal and external parts
of the globus pallidus and the putamen. These three are
separated from each other by the medial and lateral
medullary laminae of the globus pallidus. The dark putamen
contrasts sharply with the globus pallidus.
116
Coronal Section: Lentiform nucleus [key to photo]

1. Body of corpus callosum
2. Central part of lateral
ventricle
3. Choroid plexus of lateral
ventricle
4. Stria terminalis
5. Thalamostriate vein
6. Body of caudate nucleus
7. Column of fornix
8. Anterior thalamic nuclear
group
9. Tela choroidea and choroid
plexus of 3rd ventricle
10. 3rd ventricle
11. Amygdaloid nuclear
complex
12. Tuber cinereum
13. Column of fornix

14. Optic tract
15. Genu of internal capsule
16. Medial part of globus
pallidus
17. Medial medullary lamina
18. Lateral part of globus
pallidus
19. Lateral medullary lamina
20. Putamen
21. External capsule
22. Claustrum
23. Cortex of insula
24. Anterior (rostral)
commissure
117
Coronal Sec. at Optic Chiasm
[labeled photo]
118
Brain: Coronal sec.
[photo]
Optic chiasma
Caudate nucleus, etc.
119
Brain: Coronal sec. (key to previous slide)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Body of corpus callosum

Frontal horn of lateral ventricle
Septum pellucidum
Body of caudate nucleus
Columns of fornix
Anterior (rostral) commissure
Optic chiasma
Anterior limb of internal capsule
Globus pallidus
Lateral medullary lamina
Putamen
External capsule
Claustrum
120
Coronal Sec.
[labeled photo]
121
Coronal section: Mammillary bodies
[photo]
122
Coronal section: [key to photo] 14. Reticular nucleus of the

thalamus
Mammillary bodies
1. Body of corpus callosum
2. Body of caudate nucleus
3. Central part of lateral
ventricle
4. Septum pellucidum
5. Choroid plexus of lateral
ventricle
6. Columns of fornix
7. Anterior thalamic nuclear
group
8. External capsule
9. Lateral thalamic nuclear
group
10. Medial thalamic nuclei
11. Putamen
12. Lateral medullary lamina
13. Internal capsule
15. Interthalamic adhesion

16. Lateral part of globus
pallidus
17. Medial medullary lamina
18. Mamillothalamic fasciculus
19. Hl field of Forel
20. Zona incerta
21. H2 field of Forel
22. Claustrum
23. Medial part of globus
pallidus
24. 3rd ventricle
25. Hypothalamic nucleus
26. Optic tract
27. Amygdaloid body
28. Mamillary body
123
29. Basis pedunculi
Circulation of CSF
(from Marieb lab manual)
124
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

In addition to filling the
subarachnoid space, CSF fills
the ventricles (interconnected
cavities) within the cerebral
hemispheres and brain stem.
The Ventricles:
1. are continuous with central

canal of spinal cord
2. are filled with cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF)
3. are lined by ependymal
cells (remember this
neuroglial cell)
Secretion and Circulation

of CSF
1. CSF is secreted by
specialized capillaries in
choroid plexuses into the
lateral ventricles
(ventricles 1 & 2)
2. CSF circulates down into the

3rd & then 4th ventricle
and then into either:
a. the central canal of
spinal cord
b. the subarachnoid
space of meninges.
3. CSF is reabsorbed back into
the into the bloodstream
through arachnoid villi
(granulations ) that project
into dural sinuses.
CSF total volume
1. in above spaces = 150 mL.

2. ~ 1 liter secreted daily to
replenish the circulating 150
ml every 3-4 hours.
CSF movement:
due to cilia on ependymal

cells.
* See Clinical Application Ch.

125
11 concerning CSF pressure.
CSF functions:
1. mechanical
Choroid
plexus and cerebrospinal fluid (Hole fig.)
protection
(i.e.cushion)
2. chemical
protection
(i.e. ions, hormones)
3. circulation.
126
Brain ventricles (Hole fig.)
127
Cerebrospinal fluid
Only 4 ounces
Shock absorber and nutritive
Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in ventricles (by choroid

plexuses)
Circulates through: subarachnoid space and through
ventricles of brain
Ventricles: cavities (from cavity in embryonic neural tube)
Two lateral ventricles (one in each hemisphere of the
cerebrum; under the corpus callosum)
3rd ventricle: between lateral ventricles and inferior to the
thalamus
Cerebral aqueduct passes through the midbrain
4th ventricle: between inferior brain stem and cerebellum
Cerebrospinal fluid circulates; then is absorbed into veins:

via arachnoid villi to the superior sinus (a venous blood
space)
128
Ventricles of the brain (Seeley fig.)
129
Cerebrospinal fluid circulation (Seelye fig.)
130
Cerebrospinal fluid circulation (Cont.) (Seeley

fig.)
131
The Diencephalon:
Includes two important

areas of gray matter:
Thalamus
Central relay station for
incoming sensory
impulses (except smell),
that directs the impulse
to the appropriate are of
the cerebral cortex for
interpretation
Hypothalamus
Main visceral control
center of the body (i.e.
regulates homeostasis).
a. heart rate & blood
pressure
b. body temperature
c. water & electrolyte
balance
d. control of hunger & body
weight
e. control of digestive
movements & secretions
f. regulation of sleep-wake
cycles
g. control of endocrine
system functioning. 132
The Diencephalon: (continued)

Diencephalon involved in
Emotional responses:
Limbic System
structures in the
Diencephalon:
Mammillary bodies (of
hypothalamus)
Anterior nucleus of
thalamus
Limbic System:
also includes structures
in the frontal and
temporal cortex, basal
ganglia, and deep nuclei
controls emotional
experience and expression
can modify the way a
person acts
produces feelings of fear,
anger, pleasure, and sorrow
recognizes life-threatening
upsets in a persons
physical or psychological
condition and counters
them
133
involved in sense of smell.
Coronal Sec.
[labeled photo]
134
Diencephalon (thalamus and hypothalamus)

Thalamus: forms the lateral
walls of the third ventricle
mostly grey matter
Intermediate mass:
connects the two oval
masses of the thalamus
(which are embedded in the
cerebral hemisphere)
Nuclei of the thalamus

Somatic Sensory
Relay and interpretation

of pain, temperature,
touch, pressure:
Process all sensory
impulses sent to cerebral
cortex (except smell)
Somatic Motor nuclei

Anterior nucleus: emotions,
memory
Hypothalamus:
homeostatic control center;
autonomic nervous
system control and
integration (visceral
efferent nuclei and tracts;
effector control of smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle,
glands)
Visceral sensory receiver
Intermediary between
nervous system and
endocrine system (connects
to pituitary/hypophysis)
Body temperature control
Feeding and satiety centers;
thirst center
Sleep/waking center;
135
biological rhythms
Diencephalon part 1 (Seeley fig.)
136

Thalamus
137

Hypothalamu
s
138
The Brain Stem:

The brain stem is

composed of three major
parts:
Midbrain,
Pons, and
Medulla
oblongata.
The brain stem serves as a
pathway for fiber tracts
running to (sensory
impulses) and from (motor
impulses) the cerebrum
and houses many cranial
nerves (PNS).
a.
Midbrain
(mesencephalon)
1. Located between
diencephalon and pons
2. Corpora quadrigemina =
4 dome-like protrusions on
the dorsal midbrain surface
(we saw these in lab when
you separated the
cerebrum from cerebellum)
3. Gray matter within white
matter
4. Acts in reflex actions (visual
and auditory)
5. Also contains areas
associated with reticular
139
formation.
Functional Brain Systems:

These systems are networks of neurons that
work together and span large distances
within the brain.
1. Limbic System:
emotional control (previously discussed)
2. Reticular Formation:
controls the brains alertness inhibited

by sleep, alcohol, tranquilizers (text Ch.
11).
3. Types of Sleep: See text Ch. 11.

140
Brain stem (Hole fig.)
141
C.S. through midbrain at superior colliculus (Seeley fig.)
142
Mesencephalon (midbrain)
Cerebral peduncles: ventral,
pair of fiber bundles
Motor function: from
cerebral cortex to pons and
cord
Sensory function: from cord
to thalamus
Tectum (roof): dorsal
Corpora Quadrigemina
(4 bodies):
Nuclei of the
mesencephalon
Red nucleus: fibers to
descending rubrospinal
tract
CN III oculomotor (eye

movement, pupil, lens)
CN IV trochlear (eye
movement)
Superior Colliculi (head

eye reflex movements)
Inferior Colliculi (head

and trunk auditory reflex
movements)
143
Brainstem and Diencephalon Part 1 (Seeley fig.)
144
The Brain Stem

Pons
(continued)
Pons
(pons varolii)
1. Bulging portion of brain stem

2. Bridge or pathway of conduction
tracts
3. Location of pneumotaxic area
(regulation of breathing rate) of
respiratory center
4. Also contains areas associated with
reticular formation (see below)
145
Pons
Pons: bridge
White matter (tracts):
Transverse:
connect with the
cerebellum (via
peduncles)
Longitudinal:
motor and sensory
tracts
Nuclei in the pons
CN V trigeminal (motor:
chewing; sensory:
sensation from head and
face)
CN VI abducens (motor:
eye movement)
CN VII facial (sensory:

taste; motor: salivation,
facial expression)
CN VIII vestibular
branches (sensory)
Respiration control (with
medulla)
pneumotaxic area
146
apneustic area
Brainstem and Diencephalon part 2 (Seeley fig.)
147
The Brain Stem
(continued)
Medulla (medulla
oblongata)
1. Inferior portion of brain
stem which blends into
the spinal cord at its base
2. Contains an autonomic
reflex center involved in
maintaining homeostasis
of important visceral
organs
* Hypothalamus: exerts its

control over most visceral
functions by relaying impulses
through medullary centers
Medulla
Cardiac center adjusts
force and rate of heart
contraction
Vasomotor center
regulates blood pressure
by acting on smooth
muscle in the walls of
blood vessels (i.e.
constriction = BP increase
dilation = BP decrease)
Respiratory center =
control the depth and
rhythm of breathing.
Additional centers
regulate involuntary
activities such as
vomiting, hiccuping,
swallowing, coughing,
and sneezing.)
148
Medulla:
Continuous with the spinal
cord (most similar to the
cord in structure and
function)
Forms the inferior portion
of the brain stem

Contains ascending and
descending tracts (white
matter) carrying
messages to and from
the spinal cord
Some tracts cross
from right to left or left
to right:
decussation
Pyramids: located on the

ventral side of the medulla,
right and left
The pyramids are large
motor tracts carrying
messages from the cerebral
cortex to the spinal cord
Example: lateral
corticospinal tracts:
From cortex medulla
(pyramids, some fibers
decussate) lateral
columns of the cord
ventral gray horns
(synapse with efferent
neuron) PNS
149
Medulla: (continued)
Nuclei of the medulla
(gray matter)
Gracilis and
Cuneatus: dorsal side
of the medulla
Receive sensory fibers
from ascending tracts
medulla (some
decussate)
thalamus sensory
areas of the cerebral
cortex
Reticular Formation:
consciousness and
arousal
Location not limited to
the medulla!
Reticular formation
nuclei in the medulla and
these three reflex
centers:
Cardiac;
Medullary rhythmicity
(breathing);
Vasoconstrictor center
(adjust diameter of
blood vessels)
150
Brainstem and Diencephalon: Brainstem nuclei

of cranial nerves (Seeley fig.)
151
Medulla: (continued)
Nuclei in the medulla
(continued):
Control of these reflexes:
swallowing,
coughing,
sneezing (see cranial
nerve nuclei)
Nuclei of these cranial
nerves are in the medulla:

VIII cochlear nucleus and
part of vestibular:
equilibrium [more nuclei of
VIII in the pons]
IX glossopharyngeal:
motor: swallowing,
salivation, taste [sensory]
X vagus: control of thoracic
and abdominal viscera
XI accessory (in part): head
and shoulder movements
XII hypoglossal: tongue
movements
152
Brain: Sag. Sec.
[photo] (labels on next slide)
153
Labels for photo
154
Cerebellum
a. Large, cauliflower-like
structure located dorsally to
the pons and medulla and
inferiorly to the occipital
lobe of the cerebrum
(separated by transverse
fissure)
b. Note the pattern of white
matter (within gray matter)
= arbor vitae
See table (Ch. 11) for a

summary of the
functions of the
principle parts of the
brain.
Also see Clinical
Application Ch. 11
concerning brain waves
(i.e. the
Electroencephalogram,
EEG)
c. Coordinates all voluntary
muscle movements
(subconsciously) skilled
movements, posture,
equilibrium (i.e. balance).
Know: Histology of the

Cerebellar Cortex (Lab
material).
155
Cerebellum (Marieb lab manual)
156
Cerebellum
Molecular Layer
Granule Layer
White Matter (arbor vitae)
157
Cerebellum
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
Granule Layer
(deep cortex)
158
Cerebellum
Pia and Arachnoid
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
Granule Layer
(deep cortex)
White Matter
(below cortex)
159
Cerebellum
Purkinje Neurons
Pia and Arachnoid
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
Granule Layer
(deep cortex)
White Matter
(below cortex)
160
Cerebellar Cortex
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
Granule Neuron Layer

(deep cortex)
161
Cerebellar cortex
[Wards photo]
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
162
Neurons of the Cerebellum

Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
Granule Neuron Layer

(deep cortex)
163
Purkinje Neurons of Cerebellar Cortex

Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
164
Cerebellar Cortex
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
165
Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
Dendrite
Axon
166

Molecular Layer
(surface of cortex)
167
Cerebellum: Structure
Second largest part of the
brain (1/8 of brain by
weight)
Transverse Fissure
Tentorium cerebelli:
extension of dura into
transverse fissure
1. Vermis: central, medial,

worm-shaped
2. Cerebellar Hemispheres:
lateral
Hemispheres with lobes
separated by distinct
fissures
Falx cerebelli: extension of
dura between hemispheres
2. Cerebellar Hemispheres:
Anterior and Posterior
Lobes: Subconscious
movements of skeletal
muscles
Flocculonodular Lobe:
(visible in posteroinferior
view) Sense of equilibrium
Cerebellar Cortex: gray
matter in ridges (of vermis
and hemispheres)
Folia = parallel ridges
(increase surface area
like gyri, but not as
prominent)
Arbor Vitae = white matter
tracts beneath the cortex
Cerebellar Nuclei: deep
gray matter (e.g., dentate
168
nucleus)
Cerebellum (Hole fig.)
169
Cerebellum: Structure and Function

3. Cerebellar Peduncles:
Three paired bundles of
fibers attach the
cerebellum to the brain
stem
a. Inferior cerebellar
peduncles: sensory
fibers from medulla to
cerebellum
b. Middle peduncles:
information from
cerebral cortex and
pons to cerebellum
c. Superior peduncles:
from dentate nucleus
of cerebellum to
midbrain
Functions of Cerebellum
Receives
proprioceptive sensory
information (status of
muscles, tendons, and
joints) and information
from the eye and inner
ear.
Produces motor output
Subconscious
movements of
skeletal muscles:
coordination;
maintenance of
170
posture and balance
Cerebellar comparator function (Seeley fig.)
171
Sagittal sec. of Head [photo]

Labels
on
next
slide
172
Midsagittal sec. of Head

1. Falx cerebri
2. Corpus callosum, septum
pellucidum
3. Interventricular foramen & fornix
4. Choroid plexus and intermediate
mass of thalamus
5. Third ventricle and thalamus
6. Pineal body and colliculi of
midbrain
7. Cerebral aqueduct
8. Mammillary body
9. Straight sinus
10. 4th ventricle & vermis of
cerebellum
11. Pons
12. Medulla oblongata
13. Central canal
14. Cerebellum
15. Dens of axis
16. Spinal cord
17. Superior sagittal sinus
18. Anterior cerebral artery
[key to photo]
19. Anterior commissure
20. Frontal sinus
21. Crista galli (of ethmoid bone)
22. Optic chiasma
23. Pituitary (hypophysis)
24. Superior nasal concha
25. Middle n. concha & sphenoid
sinus
26. Inferior nasal concha
27. Pharyngeal opening of auditory
tube
28. Longitudinal muscle of tongue
29. Vertical muscle of tongue
30. Uvula
31. Genioglossus muscle
32. Pharynx
33. Epiglottis
34. Geniohyoid muscle
35. Mylohyoid muscle
36. Hyoid bone
37. Vocal fold and sinus of larynx 173
38. Esophagus
EEG (Seeley fig.)
Review the information

from the lab exercise
(Biopac).
174
The Peripheral Nervous System

I. PNS:
Consists of nerves that

extend to and from the CNS.
The PNS includes cranial
nerves and spinal nerves.
The PNS connects all body
parts to the brain and/or
spinal cord.
The PNS is divided into:
Sensory and
Motor: further divided into:
Somatic nervous system
(from CNS to skin and
skeletal muscles) and
Autonomic nervous
system: Visceral motor
function (from CNS to
smooth muscle, cardiac
muscle and endocrine
glands).
II. General Peripheral

Nerve Structure
A. A nerve is a cord-like
bundle of axons wrapped in
CT. (White matter)
B. Structure of a Nerve:
1. Three types of CT
wrappings (similar to
muscle):
a. endoneurium
around each axon
(and myelin)
b. perineurium around
each fascicle (bundle)
of axons
c. epineurium around
175
each nerve.
Nerve fiber bundles (Hole fig.)
176
Peripheral Nervous System: Peripheral Nerve, c.s.

Bundle of nerve fibers and glial cells with surrounding
C.T.
177
Peripheral
Nerve : Cross section of sciatic nerve of cat.
Epineurium & perineurium orange, myelin purple.

Nerve fiber bundles are embedded in fat tissue.
178
Peripheral nerve, c.s.
Perineurium
179
Peripheral nerve, oblique sec.
180
Myelinated
nerve,
[Wards
photo]
C.S., sciatic nerve
of cat.c.s.
Taken
at 9x. Nerve
fiber bundles surrounded by
epi- and perineurium. Myelin sheaths as black circles.
181
Peripheral nerve, l.s.
182
Peripheral nerve, l.s.
183
Functional Categories of Nerves (Table)
184
Functional Classification of Nerves:

A. Mixed Nerves
1. Nerves that carry
impulses both to and
from the CNS
2. Contain both sensory
and motor axons
3. Most common, 2-way
communication.
B. Sensory (afferent)
Nerves
1. Nerves that only carry
sensory impulses
toward the CNS
2. Rare (only three pairs
of cranial nerves).
C. Motor (efferent) Nerves

1. Nerves that only carry
motor impulses away
from CNS
2. Rare (only five pairs of
cranial nerves).
Know the detailed

functions of the Cranial
Nerves.
For example, review the
functions given in the
previous sections (where
the CN Nuclei are
discussed).
185
Cranial Nerves (Know the details, not just this

summary!)
12
pairs:
VI. Abducens
See
text Figure and Table Ch. 11. Also
see Marieb. SSE
2 pairs to/from forebrain,
10 pairs to/from brain stem
I. Olfactory SVA
sense of smell. Sensory only.
II. Optic SSA
sense of vision. Sensory
only.
III. Oculomotor SSE & GVE
SSE move eye muscles;
raise eyelids. GVE to focus
lens. Motor only.
IV. Trochlear SSE
move eye muscle. Motor
only.
V. Trigeminal GSA, SVE
largest. Sensory from face,
teeth. Motor to chewing
muscles. Mixed.
See text Ch. 11: trigeminal
neuralgia.
move eye muscle. Motor only.

VII. Facial SVE, GVE, GVA, SVA
SVE move muscles of facial
expression. SVA taste. Mixed.
VIII. Vestibulocochlear SSA
sense of hearing and
equilibrium. Sensory only.
IX. Glossopharyngeal GVE,
SVE, GSA, GVA
move tongue and pharynx.
Taste. Mixed.
X. Vagus GVE, SVE, GSA, GVA
GVE/GVA innervate visceral
smooth muscle, heart. Mixed
XI. Accessory SVE
move neck muscles. Motor.

XII. Hypoglossal SSE, GSE
SSE move tongue. Motor. 186
Inferior surface of Brain showing cranial nerves

(Seeley fig.)
187
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

12 Cranial Nerves:
Know names, numbers
and detailed functions
(including functional
categories)
Read the article from RN
magazine on Cranial
Nerve Assessment
Memory aide:
On Old Olympus Towering
Top A Finn And German
Viewed A Hop.
Another mnemonic device:
"Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And
Feel Very Good Velvet AH!"
Primarily sensory:
I Olfactory, II Optic, and
VIII Vestibulocochlear
Primarily motor (but also
usually includes some
proprioception sensory
function): III, IV, VI, XI, XII
Mixed (sensory and

motor functions): V, VII,
IX, X
See Cranial Nerve Table
in Marieb
Spinal Nerves: all mixed188
Cranial nerves (Hole fig.)
189
Brain
Ventral View
[photo]
Prepare
for/Review Lab
Quiz 10 and
Lecture Exam 4
material.
How many
structures can
you label?
Refer to Lab
materials for
more resources
to help you study
brain anatomy.
190
Spinal cord and spinal nerve roots (Seeley fig.)
191
Spinal Nerves:
A. Introduction
1. A spinal nerve is formed

from the fusion of a dorsal
and ventral root Then the
spinal nerve passes through
its intervertebral foramen.
2. Spinal nerves are associated
with the spinal cord and are
named for the region of the
spinal cord from which they
arise.
B. General Characteristics:
1. 31 pairs:
a. C1 - C8
b. T1 - T12
c. L1 - L5
d. S1 - S5
e. Co
2. Coverings = same as cranial
nerves.
3. Composition: all mixed.
C. Distribution of Spinal
Nerves
A short distance after

passing through its
intervertebral
foramen, a spinal
nerve branches into
several branches:
1. A posterior (dorsal)
branch.
2. A large anterior
(ventral) branch (i.e.
ventral ramus).
192
Spinal nerves (Seeley fig.)
193
Spinal Nerves: Nerve plexuses

1. Nerve Plexus: a branching

network (of the anterior
branches) of spinal
nerves.
The nerves do not extend
directly to the body part
they innervate, instead
they form networks.
2. Plexus present in all spinal
nerves except T2 - T12:
a. cervical plexus
b. brachial plexus
c. lumbar plexus
d. sacral plexus.
3. Each resulting branch of the

plexus contains the fibers
from several spinal nerves
4. Fibers from each spinal
nerve are carried to the
body periphery via several
different routes or
branches.
Therefore, damage to
one spinal segment
cannot completely
paralyze any limb
muscle.
See Clinical Application Ch.
11 concerning spinal nerve
injuries.
194
Spinal nerves (Hole fig.)
195
Spinal cord and spinal nerves (Seeley fig.)
196
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

ANS: Visceral Efferent Function
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic divisions
ANS motor pathways involve two neurons (whereas
in somatic motor pathways there is only one neuron
extending into the PNS).
The two-neuron ANS pathways include:
Preganglionic neuron (multipolar cell body in

CNS, visceral motor axon from CNS to ganglion)
Autonomic ganglion (synapse)

In contrast to the dorsal root ganglia which are
sensory and have unipolar neurons so there are
no synapses in the DRG.]
Postganglionic neuron (multipolar neuron, cell
body in the ganglion, axon extends from ganglion197
to visceral effector)
Organization of ANS Neurons (Seeley fig.)
198
The Autonomic Nervous System

The ANS regulates the
action of smooth
muscles, cardiac muscle,
and some glands.
The ANS regulates
involuntary (automatic
unconscious) actions.
There are two divisions of
the ANS.
The parasympathetic
division functions
under normal
conditions (to maintain
homeostasis), and
The sympathetic
division of the ANS
functions under stress.
Compare: Somatic motor

vs. Autonomic Pathways:
A. Somatic motor:
1. One motor neuron
2. No ganglia
3. NT = acetylcholine
(ACh) excitatory
4. Effector = skeletal
muscles.
B. ANS:
1. Two motor neurons
2. Synapse between
neurons occur within a
ganglion
3. Effectors = smooth
muscle, cardiac muscle,
199
glands.
Autonomic Vs. Somatic Pathways (Hole fig.)
200
ANS Two Divisions:

a. Parasympathetic:
1st neuron (preganglionic) = long
2nd neuron (postganglionic) = short.
NT of postganglionic fiber = ACh.
b. Sympathetic:
1st neuron (preganglionic) = short
2nd neuron (postganglionic) = long.
NT of postganglionic fiber = norepinephrine
Use this guide to figure out which division
slows and which accelerates different
visceral activities:
Parasympathetic: P for Peace

Sympathetic: S for Stress
201
Innervation of Organs by the ANS (Seeley fig.)
202
Autonomic Nervous System Divisions
[table]
Branch of ANS
General Function
PARASYMPATHETIC
maintain
homeostasis
Origin of
Preganglionic
fiber
Length of
Preganglionic
fiber
Location of
Ganglia
NT secreted by
post-ganglionic
fiber
from cranial region of

brain or sacral
region of spinal cord
long
SYMPATHETIC
to survive stressful
or fight or flight
situations
from thoracic or
lumbar region of
spinal cord
short
at or near effector
alongside spinal cord
acetylcholine
norepinephrine
203
Sympathetic division of ANS (Hole fig.)
Sympathetic ANS
(visceral motor) uses
Thoracic and
Lumbar nerves.
204
Parasympathetic division of ANS (Hole fig.)
Parasympathetic ANS
(visceral motor) uses
Cranial and
Sacral nerves.
205
Location Of ANS Ganglia:

A. Definition: A ganglion is a
collection of neuron cell
bodies outside the CNS.
IV. The Pre-Ganglionic

Neuron:
B. Parasympathetic
A. Origination:
1. Parasympathetic arise
from the Craniosacral
regions of the brain &
spinal cord.
2. Sympathetic arise from
the Thoracolumbar
regions of the spinal
cord.
B. Length of axon (or preganglionic fiber):
1. Parasympathetic = long
206
2. Sympathetic = short.
ganglia are located at or

near the effector.
See text Figure Ch.11.
C. Sympathetic ganglia
are located on either side

of the spinal cord (chain
ganglia sympathetic
trunk), and are far from
their effector.
See same figures.
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Secretions (Hole fig.)
207
Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic ANS

The Sympathetic division of ANS is responsible for
emergency responses: the effects are broader,
quicker and more uniform.
The Sympathetic sounds the alarm centrally and
distributes the signal broadly with long
postganglionic fibers.
The Parasympathetic division of ANS is
responsible for rest and relaxation: the effects
can be slower, more specific, and pinpoint.
Parasympathetic ANS has long preganglionic
fibers that go to the specific organ for pinpoint,
specific effects.
208
Sympathetic (Thoracolumbar) Division

1. T1 -L2
2. General Pathway is complex!
a. Preganglionic neuron from
spinal cord
b. Out through white ramus
communicans to enter an
adjoining
c. Chain (paravertebral)
ganglion forming part of
the sympathetic trunk
(chain).
3. Once a preganglionic axon

reaches a chain ganglion,
one of three things can
happen:
a. It can synapse with a
postganglionic neuron within
the same ganglion =
synapse in a chain
(paravertebral) ganglion
at same level.
The postganglionic neuron

passes through the gray
ramus communicans and out
the ventral ramus leading to its
effector (blood vessel, skin).
b. It can ascend or descend

within the sympathetic chain
to synapse in an other chain
(paravertebral) ganglion =
synapse in a chain
(paravertebral) ganglion
at a different level.
The postganglionic neuron
passes through gray ramus
communicans.
c. It can pass through the

ganglion to a collateral
(prevertebral) ganglion
(via Splanchnic Nerve)
Therefore synapse occurs within

the collateral ganglion and then
the postsynaptic neuron
extends to the effector
209
(abdominal organ).
Routes taken by Sympathetic axons part 1 (Seeley

fig.)
210
Routes taken by Sympathetic axons part 2 (Seeley

fig.)
211
Physiology Of The ANS

A. Neurotransmitters
1. ACh is released by
cholinergic fibers
(axons) [including
parasympathetic
postganglionic]
2. Norepinephrine is
released by adrenergic
fibers (axons) [including
sympathetic postganglion]
B. Receptors
A receptor is present in
the cell membrane of an
effector and recognizes
its NT, allowing for a
response to occur within
the effector.
1. Cholinergic receptors bind

ACh two types:
a. nicotinic are always
stimulatory.
b. muscarinic may be
stimulatory or inhibitory.
2. Adrenergic receptors bind

norepinephrine two types:
a. alpha () are usually
stimulatory.
b. beta () are usually
inhibitory.
C. Effects of Autonomic
Stimulation on Various
Effectors...
See text Table Ch. 11.
212
Sympathetic Division (Seeley fig.)
213
Location of ANS receptors: Sympathetic (Seeley fig.)
214
Parasympathetic ANS (Seeley fig.)
215
Location of ANS receptors: Parasympathetic (Seeley

fig.)
216
Autonomic reflexes part 1 (Seeley fig.)
217
Autonomic reflexes part 2 (Seeley fig.)
218
End of Unit 4 Nervous System Ch. 11.

Exam 4 Format:
Multiple choice
True/False: ~15-20 points
Diagrams to label
Topics:
Text Ch. 10, Ch. 11, and related lab material
219

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Unit 4 Nervous System continued: Chapter 11

Chapter 11: Nervous System II

I. Protection of the CNS.

Meninges of brain (Seeley fig.)

Meninges Surround the CNS

Outermost membrane, attached to inner periosteum of skull

Inner layer, clings to brain surface over thin delicate CT

Meninges of CNS (brain) (Hole fig.)

Cranial Meninges (fig.)

Meninges and Cerebrospinal Fluid

1. CSF total volume in above spaces = 150 mL.

Protective layers around spinal cord (Hole fig.)

Meninges of spinal cord (Seeley fig.)

Dorsal root ganglion, Golgi stain [labeled photo]

Spinal cord (Hole fig.)

The spinal cord is a nerve column that

Gross Structure of Spinal Cord:

3. Note cervical and lumbar enlargements.

Spinal cord: dissection [photo]

Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

More histology of the cord and

Cross-Sectional Anatomy of Spinal Cord

A cross-section of the spinal cord

b. The white matter of the

spinal cord is also called

provide a 2-way system

Cross section of spinal cord (Seeley fig.)

White matter of the spinal cord:

Spinal cord cross section (Hole fig.)

Spinal cord, nerve roots, spinal ganglion [LUMEN photo]

White matter of cord

Dorsal root ganglion

Ventral horn of gray matter

Spinal cord and vertebra, c.s.

Dorsal root ganglion

Cross-Sectional Anatomy of Spinal Cord

Spinal cord, nerve roots, spinal ganglion [Wards photo]

Dorsal Root Ganglion and Ventral Root

Dorsal root ganglion [labeled photo]

Spinal ganglion = Dorsal root ganglion

Spinal Cord C.S.

Spinal cord c.s. [photo]

cord c.s. [photo from KU]

Spinal Cord : Cross section. Weigert stain. [Wards photo]

Spinal Cord : C.S., Silver. Gross structures of spinal cord.

Gray matter: H-shaped; large motor neurons & fiber bundles.

Spinal cord, c.s. Golgi stain [photo]

Spinal cord, c.s.

Neurons of Spinal Cord

Spinal cord, neurons in gray matter, Weigert stain

Spinal cord, neurons in gray matter, Weigert stain

Cross section of spinal cord : Tracts (Seeley fig.)

Ascending and descending pathways in cord [labeled

Spinal cord, c.s.: cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral

Path of sensory impulses (Hole fig.)

Lateral spinothalamic tract (Seeley fig.)

Anterior Spinothalamic tract (Seeley fig.)

Dorsal column pathway (Seeley fig.)

Posterior spinothalamic tract (Seeley fig.)

Path of motor impulses (Hole fig.)

Descending pathways (Seeley fig.)

Direct pathways (Seeley fig.)

Indirect pathways (Seeley fig.)