VARIABLES

Definition: Variables are properties or characteristics

of people or things that vary in quality or magnitude
from person to person or object to object (Miller &
Nicholson, 1976)

Demographic characteristics
Personality traits
Communication styles or competencies
Constructs

in order to be a variable, a variable must vary (e.g.,

not be a constant), that is, it must take on different
values, levels, intensities, or states

Definitions
Variable: any entity that can take on a variety of different
values (Wrench et al, 2008, p. 104)
gender
self-esteem
managerial style
stuttering severity
attributes, values, and levels are the variations in a variable
Attribute: political party:
Value: Democrat, Republican, Independent, etc.
Attribute: Self-esteem
Level: High, Medium, Low

independent variable
the variable that is manipulated either by the
researcher or by nature or circumstance
independent variables are also called stimulus
input or predictor variables
analogous to the cause in a cause-effect
relationship

operationalization of the
independent variable
Operationalization:
translating an abstract
concept into a tangible,
observable form in an
experiment

Operationalizations can
include:
variations in stimulus
conditions (public schools
versus home schooling)
variations in levels or
degrees (mild vs. moderate vs.
strong fear appeals)
variations based on
standardized scales or
diagnostic instruments (low
vs. high self esteem scores)
variations in intact or selfselected groups (smokers vs.
non-smokers)

varieties and types of variables

Discrete variables
Nominal variables: distinct, mutually
exclusive categories
religions; Christians, Muslims,
Jews, etc.
occupations; truck driver, teacher,
engineer
marital status; single, married,
divorced
Concrete versus abstract variables
concrete; relatively fixed,
unchanging
biological sex
ethnicity
abstract; dynamic, transitory
mood, emotion
occupation

Dichotomous variables:
true/false, female/male,
democrat/republican
Ordered variables: mutually exclusive
categories, but with an order,
sequence, or hierarchy
fall, winter, summer, spring
K-6, junior high, high school,
college

varieties and types of variables-continued

Continuous variables: include constant
increments or gradations, which can be
arithmetically compared and contrasted
IQ scores
self-esteem scores
age
heart rate, blood pressure
number of gestures

Unit of analysis

Definition: The specific entity being

examined
individual; self esteem, fluency

dyad: self disclosure, touch

group: roles, norms
Organization: communication
networks, upward-downward
influence
Culture: individualism vs. collectivism
What constitutes a specific score or
measure on the outcome variable?
marital satisfaction?
one row of data in SPSS

Ecological fallacy: drawing

conclusions about individuals
based on group data
committing a sweeping
generalization about participants in
a research study
individualism/collectivism
all southerners are bigots

operationalization
definition: the specific steps or procedures
required to translate an abstract concept into a
concrete, testable variable
example: high versus low self-esteem (split-half or
top vs. bottom third?)
example: on-line versus traditional classroom (how
much e-learning constitutes an on-line class?)

examples of operationalizations
credibility (high versus low)
culture/ethnicity (self-report)
type of speech therapy (inclinic vs. at school, vs. at
home)
compliance-gaining strategy
preferences (positive versus
negative, self-benefit versus
other benefit)

powerless language style

fear appeals (mild, moderate,
strong)
food server touch versus no
touch

dependent variable
a variable that is observed or measured, and that
is influenced or changed by the independent
variable
dependent variables are also known as response
or output or criterion variables
analogous to the effect in a cause-effect
relationship

confounding variable
also known as extraneous variables or intervening
variables
confounding variables muddy the waters
alternate causal factors or contributory factors which
unintentionally influence the results of an experiment, but
arent the subject of the study

mediating variable
a.k.a. moderating, intervening, intermediary, or mediating
variables
a 2nd or 3rd variable that can increase or decrease the relationship
between an independent and a dependent variable.
for example, whether listeners are persuaded more by the quality
or quantity of arguments is moderated by their degree of
involvement in an issue.

interchangeability of independent and

dependent variables
The same concept or construct could serve as the
independent variable in one investigation, and the dependent
in another.
example: source credibility
as an independent variable; RQ: Does source credibility (low versus
high) have a significant effect on attitude change?
As a dependent variable; RQ: Does the amount of evidence contained
in a speech affect listeners perceptions of the sources credibility?

example: fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

As an independent variable: RQ: Does severity of FAS correlate
positively with language delay in infants?
As a dependent variable: RQ: Does the amount of maternal alcohol
use correlate positively with the severity of FAS in infancy?

Relationships among variables

Differences
Differences in kind, degree

Relationships (correlations)
Positive correlation
Negative correlation
No or neutral correlation