Chapter 6

Geometry of Deformation and

Work-Hardening

Common Metal Working Methods

Common metalworking methods. (a)

Rolling. (b) Forging (open and closed die).
(c) Extrusion (direct and indirect).
(d) Wire drawing. (e) Stamping.

Work-Hardening of a Material

Stressstrain curves (schematic) for an

elastic, ideally plastic; a work-hardening;
and a work-softening material.

Engineering Stress-Strain Curves for Nickel

Engineering-stress engineering-strain curves for nickel. (a)

Nickel subjected to 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 90% cold-rolling
reduction. (b) Nickel cold rolled to 80%, followed by
annealing at different temperatures. (From D. Jaramillo, V. S.
Kuriyama, and M. A. Meyers, Acta Met. 34 (1986) 313.)

Compression Tests on TiC at Different Temperatures

Stressstrain curves for annealed

polycrystalline TiC deformed in
compression at the temperatures indicated (
= 1.7 104 s1). (Adapted from G. Das, K.
S. Mazdiyasni, and H. A. Lipsitt,
J. Am. Cer. Soc., 65 (Feb. 1982) 104.)

Shear Stress-Shear Strain Response of Al2O3

Shear stress vs. shear strain for prism

plane slip in Al2O3 at various temperatures;
= 3.5 104 s1 for the solid curves, = 1.4
104 s1 for the dashed curves. (Courtesy of T.
E. Mitchell.)

Stereographic Projections

(a) Representation of crystallographic directions and poles

(normals to planes) for cubic structure. (b) Standard [100]
stereographic projection. (Reprinted with permission from C.
S. Barrett and T. B. Massalski, The Structure of Metals, 3d ed.
(New York: McGraw-Hill, 1966), p. 39.)

Standard Stereographic Projection

Standard [001] stereographic projection

divided into 24 triangles.

Slip Plane and Slip Direction-Schmid Law

Relationship between loading axis and slip

plane and direction.

Schmids Law and Schmid Factor

Comparison of Schmids law

prediction with experimental
results for zinc. (Adapted with
permission from D. C. Jillson,
Trans. AIME, 188 (1950) 1120.)

Effect of orientation on the inverse of

Schmid factor (1/M) for FCC metals.
(Adapted with permission from G. Y. Chin,
Inhomogeneities of Plastic
Deformation, in The Role of Preferred
Orientation in Plastic Deformation
(Metals Park, OH: ASM, 1973), pp. 83,
85.)

Plastic Deformation- Rotation of Slip Plane

Stereographic projection showing the rotation of

slip plane during deformation. Direction P1,
inside stereographic triangle, moves toward P2 on
boundary [100][111]. Then, P2 moves toward
[211].

Shear-Stress vs. Shear-Strain Curve for Nb (BCC)

Shear-stress vs. shear-strain curves for Nb (BCC) monocrystals at

different crystallographic orientations; arrows indicate calculated
strain at which conjugate slip is initiated. (From T. E. Mitchell,
Prog. App. Matls. Res. 6 (1964) 117.)

Cross-Slip

Generic shear-stressshear-strain curves

for FCC single crystals for two
different temperatures.

Model of cross-slip.

Shear Stress-Shear Strain Curves

for FCC Single Crystals

Generic shear-stressshear-strain curves for FCC

single crystals for two different temperatures.

Cross-Slip

Work-Hardening in Polycrystalline Cu

Average dislocation density as a function of the resolved shear

stress for copper. (Adapted with permission from H.
Wiedersich, J. Metals, 16 (1964) p. 425, 427.)

Work-Hardening in Polycrystalline Alumina

Relationship between flow shear stress and

dislocation density for monocrystalline sapphire
(A12O3) deformed at different temperatures.
(Adapted from B. J. Pletka, A. H. Heuer, and T. E.
Mitchell, Acta Met., 25 (1977) 25.)

Taylor Model of Work Hardening

Taylor model of interaction among dislocations in a crystal.

Dislocation Cells

Development of substructure of Nickel-200 as a

function of plastic deformation by cold rolling. (a) 20%
reduction. (b) 40% reduction. (c) 80% reduction.

Kuhlmann-Wilsdorfs Work Hardening Theory

Schematic representation of dislocation cells of size L, with

activation of dislocation sources from the cell walls and bowing out
of loops into the cell interior. (Courtesy of D. KuhlmannWilsdorf.)

Load-Deformation Curve fro Concrete

Typical load deformation curve for

concrete under uniaxial compression;
the specimen was unloaded and
reloaded at different stages of
deformation. (From G. A. Hegemier
and H. E. Reed, Mech. Mater., 4
(1985) 215; data originally from A.
Anvar.)

Work Softening

(a) Compressive true-stresstrue-strain curves for

titanium at different strain rates; notice the onset of
softening at the arrows. (Adapted from M. A.
Meyers, G. Subhash, B. K. Kad, and L. Prasad,
Mech. Mater., 17 (1994) 175.)
(b) Schematic linear shear-stressshear-strain curves
for titanium at different temperatures, with
superimposed adiabatic curve constructed from
isothermal curves by incrementally converting
deformation work into heat (and a consequent rise in
temperature.) (Adapted from M. A. Meyers and H.
-R. Pak, Acta Met., 34 (1986) 2493.)

Shear Bands in Titanium

Shear bands in titanium. (a) Optical micrograph,

showing band. (b) Transmission electron
micrograph, showing microcrystalline structure,
with grain size approximately equal to 0.2 m. The
original grain size of the specimen was 50 m.

Rolling Texture

Perspective view of microstructure of Nickel-200 cold

rolled to a reduction in thickness of 60%.

Texture Strengthening

Theoretical bounds on the Youngs

modulus E of steel.

Orientation dependence of yield strength and

strain to fracture of a rolled copper sheet.

Common Wire and Sheet Textures

Rolled-Brass Sheet

[111] pole figure of a rolled-brass sheet.