Animal Physiology

Neurons and
nervous
systems
Lec. 6

The nervous system

The nervous system can be divided into two parts:
1. The central nervous system (CNS), which is composed of the
brain and spinal cord.
2. The peripheral nervous system (PNS), which is composed of
nerves that connect the CNS to muscles, glands, and sense
organs.
. Neurons are the basic building blocks of the nervous system.
. The human brain contains about 1011 (100 billion) neurons.
. It also contains 1050 times this number of glial cells or glia.
. The CNS is a complex organ; it has been calculated that 40%
of the human genes participate in its formation.

Properties of Nerve Fibers

1.Excitability
2.Conductivity

Cellular elements of the nervous system

Neurons are the workhorses of the nervous system.

They work by generating and conducting action
potentials
Action potentials are simply changes in the
polarity of the potential difference (voltage)
that exists across the membrane of a neuron.
Action potentials represent the means by which
information is transmitted throughout the
nervous system and, therefore, the means by
which it achieves control and coordination.

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

Cells under resting conditions have an electrical

potential difference across their plasma
membrane. This potential is the Resting
Membrane Potential (RMP)
The cytoplasm is electrically (-) relative to the
ECF
The RMP plays a vital role in the excitability of
nerve and muscle cells and in other cellular
responses.

Genesis

(formation)

of the RMP

The RMP: Neurons process information in the form of

electrical signals (nerve impulses or action potentials)
that travel along their axons.
1. Distribution of ions
movement of ions depend on:
a. Concentration
b. Electrical potential difference

if forces are equal = no movement

. Nernst equation

. Nernst equilibrium

 Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz
EMF(mV)=61log(Co/Ci)

2. Selective Permeability of the

Membrane
3. Na+ - K+ pump
. RMP
skeletal muscle (-) 90mV
nerve (-) 70 mV

Action Potential

Action Potential

All-or-Nothing Principle
Strength duration curve
Synaptic polarization
Threshold. If the neuron does

not reach this critical

threshold level, then no
action potential will fire.

The action potential has four main stages: depolarization, repolarization,

hyperpolarization, and the refractory phase.
Depolarization is caused when positively charged sodium ions rush into a neuron.
Repolarization is caused by the closing of sodium ion channels and the opening of
potassium ion channels.
Hyperpolarization occurs due to an excess of open potassium channels and
potassium efflux from the cell.
The refractory period for a cell is characterized by a reduced capacity to evoke
another action potential.
Certain neuronal axons are covered with myelin, which enables faster transduction
of the action potential.Myelin segments are separated by gaps known as nodes of
Ranvier.
Saltatory conduction occurs when the ionic current from one node of Ranvier
difuses via the cytoplasm to the next node.
/

 Most have the same parts as the typical spinal

motor neuron illustrated below:

Neurons
1. The cell body (soma) contains the nucleus and is the
metabolic center of the neuron.
2. Dendrites extend outward from the cell body and
branched extensively. Particularly in the cerebral and
cerebellar cortex. The dendrites have small knobby
projections called dendritic spines.
. Dendrites function is to receive information from other
neurons and from sensory receptors.
. A typical neuron has a long fibrous axon that originates
from a thickened area of the cell body, the axon hillock.
. The first portion of the axon is called the initial segment.

Neurons

 The axon divides into presynaptic terminals, each ending in a

number of synaptic knobs that are also called terminal buttons
. They contain granules or vesicles that store the synaptic
transmitters secreted by the nerves.
The function of the axon is to transmit action potentials down
its length to the axon terminal .

The axon terminal connects with a variety of other

structures, including dendrites, cell bodies, axons
of other neurons, or non-neural tissue (e.g. muscle
or glandular tissue).
There is no physical contact between the axon
terminal and other structures since there is a gap
between them called the synapse.

The myelin sheath

The axons of many neurons are myelinated, that is, they
acquire a sheath of myelin (a proteinlipid complex that is
wrapped around the axon).
In the peripheral nervous system, myelin forms when a
Schwann cell wraps its membrane around an axon.
This can occur up to 100 times, resulting in many layers of
myelin around an axon.
The myelin sheath envelops the axon except at its ending
and at the nodes of Ranvier.
The insulating function of myelin is critical for saltatory
conduction of action potentials.
Some neurons have axons that are unmyelinated, that is,
they are simply surrounded by Schwann cells without the
wrapping of the Schwann cell membrane that produces
myelin around the axon.

 Within the CNS, the cells that form the myelin are
oligodendrocytes.
Unlike the Schwann cell, which forms the myelin on a single
neuron, Oligodendrocytes send multiple processes that form
myelin on many neighboring axons.

Based on the number of processes that emerge from the cell body,
neurons can be classified as unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar.
Similarly, neurons can be divided into three functional classes.
1. Sensory, or afferent, neurons,
2. Motor, or efferent, neurons
3. Connecting them together, inter, or interneurons, neurons

(a) Multipolar; (b)

bipolar;

Glial cells
The second group of cells seen in the nervous system
of animals are the glial cells.
Glial cells are intimately associated with neurons,
although they themselves do not conduct action
potentials.
In the human brain, for example, glial cells
outnumber neurons by about 10:1.
The function of glial cells is one of supporting the
work of neurons. For example, they may provide
neurons with nutrients, ensure that the ionic
environment surrounding them is correctly
maintained, and remove waste materials.
There are two major types of glia, microglia and
macroglia.
Microglia are scavenger cells that resemble tissue

 Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells are involved

in myelin formation around axons in the CNS and
peripheral nervous system, respectively.
Astrocytes, which are found throughout the brain,
are of two subtypes.
1. Fibrous astrocytes, which contain many
intermediate filaments, are found primarily in
white matter.
2. Protoplasmic astrocytes are found in gray matter
and have a granular cytoplasm.

Classification of Nerve Fibers

Class

Conduction
Velocity
(m/sec)

Size
( m)

70-120

12-20

Proprioception
Somatic motor

30-70

5-12

Touch pressure

15-30

3-6

Motor to muscle
spindle

12-30

2-5

Pain,touch, cold
temp

3-5

<3

0.5-2

0.4 -1.2

Functions

Preganglionic,
Autonomic
pain, temperature,
mechanoreception

Refractory Periods
Refractory period: the amount of time it takes
for an excitable membrane to be ready for a
second stimulus once it returns to its resting
state following excitation in the areas of biology,
physiology, and cardiology.
Local Excitatory States
subthreshold stimulus
inadequate duration of applications
According to their location
receptor potential
synaptic potential
pacemaker potential
end-plate potential
In general, moves the RMP closer to the threshold
potential.

Refractory Periods
The Refractory Period is one of the many phases
of theaction potentialof a cell.

Absolute Refractory Period: Is the period of

time during which a second action potential
ABSOLUTELY cannot be initiated, no matter
how large the applied stimulus is.
Relative Refractory:Is theinterval immediately
following the Absolute Refractory Period during
which initiation of a second action potential is
INHIBITED, but not impossible. Asvoltage-gated
potassium channelsopen to terminate the action
potential by repolarizing the membrane.

Animal Physiology - Lec. 7

Synapses

Synapse and Synaptic

Transmission
Synapse
an anatomically specialized junction
between two neurons.
important in the transport of nerve
signals from one neuron (presynaptic) to
the next neuron (postsynaptic)
100 quadrillion synapses in the CNS

2 types
a.Electrical
b.Chemical
Quadrillion=1000 000 000 000
000 = 1015;

Electrical synapses

Electrical synapses, or Ephapses, are by far the simplest

mechanism by which an action potential can be transferred from one
neuron to another.

However, they are far less common than chemical synapses,

particularly in the higher animals.

The pre- and postsynaptic membranes lie close to each other,

forming a specialized cell-cell contact known as a gap junction.
The gap junction is sometimes called a connexon, and consists of
a protein structure linking the membranes of the two cells. This
allows ions for example, to pass from the presynaptic neuron to the
postsynaptic neuron.
The gap junction may open and close, thus allowing or preventing
an action potential to pass from one neuron to the next.
In the CNS, neurons receive both types of synapses and integrate
the information coming into them before sending the processed
message on to another cell.

Chemical Synapses
A synapse is a specialized region where a neuron
communicates with a target cell: another neuron, a
muscle cell, or a gland cell.
Most synapses are chemical, By a process of
exocytosis, the neurotransmitter is released into the
synapse where it diffuses across and combines with a
specific receptor on the postsynaptic membrane.
Once the neurotransmitter has combined with its
receptor, it is able to influence the membrane
potential of the postsynaptic neuron.
The postsynaptic receptor may be ionotropic, in
which case it will open a selective pore and allow
ions to flow to produce a postsynaptic potential
(PSP),
or it may be metabotropic and inform a G protein to

Electrical& Chemical Synapses

Neurotransmitters
The presynaptic terminal must provide for
the synthesis, packaging, and release of
the various transmitters. The non-peptide
transmitters
are
concentrated
inside
vesicles.
After release, transmitters are degraded or
transported back into the presynaptic
terminal
for
re-use.
The
vesicular
membranes are also recycled.
They are all hydrophilic and contain groups
that are charged at physiologic pH. Thus,
they do not readily pass through lipid
membranes.

Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters

Classes of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are endogenous
chemicals that transmit signals from a
neuron to a target cell across a synapse.
1. Acetylcholine.
2. Amino acids glutamate, GABA
(GAMMA -

AMINOBUTYRIC ACID).

3. Biogenic amines catecholamines,

serotonin, histamine.
4. Miscellaneous nitric acid, adenosine.
5. Neuropeptides endogenous opioids.

1- ACETYLCHOLINE
Acetylcholine (ACh) was the first recognized
transmitter. It is used by spinal motor neurons to
excite skeletal muscles; by the parasympathetic
nerves to communicate with various end organs,
including the vagus nerve slowing pacemaker
regions of the heart; in sympathetic and
parasympathetic ganglia; and in various locations
in the CNS.
ACh is synthesized from acetyl-CoA and choline
by the enzyme choline acetyl transferase (CAT),
found in the presynaptic cytoplasm.

Acetylcholine Synthesis and Metabolism

Acetyl choline cholinesterase

acetate + choline

 As soon as acetylcholine is released in the cleft, it is

quickly hydrolyzed by an enzyme acetylcholinesterase.
Thus acetylcholine does not remain in the cleft for more
than a millisecond.
There are two classes of postsynaptic ACh receptors
(AChRs), which are named for other agonists that can
also bind to them.
A. Nicotinic AChRs are at neuromuscular junctions,
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia, and in the CNS.
Nicotinic AChRs are ionotropic receptors. They are
chemosensitive channels that are opened by nicotine and
blocked by curare.
B. Muscarinic AChRs occur in the heart, smooth muscles,
gland cells, and CNS. They are metabotropic that are
activated by muscarine and blocked by atropine.

2- AMINO ACIDS
A. GLUTAMATE
. Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter of the
CNS. It is a nonessential amino acid, but, because it cannot
pass the bloodbrain barrier, it must be synthesized in the
CNS.
. Ionotropic glutamate receptors, gluRs, also metabotropic
gluRs (mgluRs). All of these are normally activated by
glutamate.
B. GABA and GLYCINE
. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine are the
major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS.
. Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) converts glutamate into
GABA in the presynaptic terminal cytoplasm.
. GABA is packaged and released as other transmitters.

3- BIOGENIC AMINES
The catecholamines, serotonin, and histamine are all biogenic amines.
A. The catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
(NE), and epinephrine (adrenaline) (EPI).
. Dopamine and NE are found in the CNS. NE is the principal final
transmitter of the sympathetic nervous system and EPI is made and
released by the adrenal medulla.
. There are two categories of adrenergic receptors:
. alpha-adrenergic receptors have a higher affinity for NE
. and beta-adrenergic receptors have a higher affinity for EPI.
. The alpha receptors are primarily found on the smooth muscle cells that
control the diameter of small blood vessels; NE acts to constrict these
vessels.
. The beta receptors are primarily in the heart and can make it beat faster
and harder.
. Muscle relaxation via adrenergic receptor activation occurs in smooth
muscle cells in the gut and the lungs.

B. Serotonin, or 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)

. 5-HT receptors function in the gut in secretion and peristalsis,
mediate platelet aggregation and smooth muscle contraction.
. Serotonin was initially identified as a substance in blood serum
that constricted blood vessels.
C. Histamine

. Most histamine in the body is released from mast cells (part of the
immune system) in response to antigens or tissue injury.
. Histamine also is a regulator of acid secretion in the gut and acts
as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
. Histamine release is associated with allergic reactions; it initiates
inflammatory responses, dilates blood vessels and increases
capillary permeability, decreases heart rate, and contracts smooth
muscles in the lung.

4. PURINES
. ATP is contained in synaptic vesicles and
released with NE in sympathetic
vasoconstrictor neurons.
. It induces constriction when applied
directly to the smooth muscles.
. P2X ATP receptors are ion channels that
permit the entry of Ca2+.
. These receptors are also in the brain.

5.PEPTIDES
.Neuropeptides are small polypeptides that are synthesized as larger inactive
precursors (propeptides).
.As they are proteins, they are synthesized in the cell body and transported in
vesicles to the terminals.
.There is no reuptake mechanism. Peptides are less concentrated than other
neurotransmitters in vesicles but have higher affinity for their receptors.
.Not much is known about the function of most neuropeptides in the CNS
except the opiate peptides, endorphin, enkephalin, and dynorphin, which
are involved in the regulation of pain perception. Three opiate receptors
have been identified, initially as the sites that bind synthetic opiates such as
morphine.
.There are many nonopiate peptides released from neurons. For example:
luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are
involved in reproduction. Cholecystokinin (CCK), gastrin, and vasoactive
intestinal peptide (VIP) facilitate digestion.

Neuromuscular Junction and N-M

Transmission

Events during N-M Transmission

Action potential in Presynaptic Motor axon
terminal

Increase in Ca++ ion permeability and influx

of Ca++ into the Axon Terminal

Release of Ach from the Synaptic Vesicles

into the Synaptic Cleft

Diffusion of Ach to Postjunctional membrane

Events during N-M Transmission

Combination of Ach with specific receptors
on postjunctional membrane

Increase in permeability of postjunctional

membrane to Na++ and K+ causes
endplate potential (EPP)

Depolarization of areas of Muscle

membrane adjacent to end plate and
initiation of AP

Factors Affecting Synaptic

Transmission
1. Acid-base states
a. alkalosis
b. acidosis
2. Ions, oxygen and CO2
concentrations
3. Drugs
those that excite
those that inhibit

4.

Temperature