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Neurons and
nervous
systems
Lec. 6
1.Excitability
2.Conductivity
Genesis
(formation)
of the RMP
. Nernst equilibrium
Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium
Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz
EMF(mV)=61log(Co/Ci)
Action Potential
Action Potential
All-or-Nothing Principle
Strength duration curve
Synaptic polarization
Threshold. If the neuron does
Neurons
1. The cell body (soma) contains the nucleus and is the
metabolic center of the neuron.
2. Dendrites extend outward from the cell body and
branched extensively. Particularly in the cerebral and
cerebellar cortex. The dendrites have small knobby
projections called dendritic spines.
. Dendrites function is to receive information from other
neurons and from sensory receptors.
. A typical neuron has a long fibrous axon that originates
from a thickened area of the cell body, the axon hillock.
. The first portion of the axon is called the initial segment.
Neurons
Within the CNS, the cells that form the myelin are
oligodendrocytes.
Unlike the Schwann cell, which forms the myelin on a single
neuron, Oligodendrocytes send multiple processes that form
myelin on many neighboring axons.
Based on the number of processes that emerge from the cell body,
neurons can be classified as unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar.
Similarly, neurons can be divided into three functional classes.
1. Sensory, or afferent, neurons,
2. Motor, or efferent, neurons
3. Connecting them together, inter, or interneurons, neurons
Glial cells
The second group of cells seen in the nervous system
of animals are the glial cells.
Glial cells are intimately associated with neurons,
although they themselves do not conduct action
potentials.
In the human brain, for example, glial cells
outnumber neurons by about 10:1.
The function of glial cells is one of supporting the
work of neurons. For example, they may provide
neurons with nutrients, ensure that the ionic
environment surrounding them is correctly
maintained, and remove waste materials.
There are two major types of glia, microglia and
macroglia.
Microglia are scavenger cells that resemble tissue
Conduction
Velocity
(m/sec)
Size
( m)
70-120
12-20
Proprioception
Somatic motor
30-70
5-12
Touch pressure
15-30
3-6
Motor to muscle
spindle
12-30
2-5
Pain,touch, cold
temp
3-5
<3
0.5-2
0.4 -1.2
Functions
Preganglionic,
Autonomic
pain, temperature,
mechanoreception
Refractory Periods
Refractory period: the amount of time it takes
for an excitable membrane to be ready for a
second stimulus once it returns to its resting
state following excitation in the areas of biology,
physiology, and cardiology.
Local Excitatory States
subthreshold stimulus
inadequate duration of applications
According to their location
receptor potential
synaptic potential
pacemaker potential
end-plate potential
In general, moves the RMP closer to the threshold
potential.
Refractory Periods
The Refractory Period is one of the many phases
of theaction potentialof a cell.
Synapses
2 types
a.Electrical
b.Chemical
Quadrillion=1000 000 000 000
000 = 1015;
Electrical synapses
Chemical Synapses
A synapse is a specialized region where a neuron
communicates with a target cell: another neuron, a
muscle cell, or a gland cell.
Most synapses are chemical, By a process of
exocytosis, the neurotransmitter is released into the
synapse where it diffuses across and combines with a
specific receptor on the postsynaptic membrane.
Once the neurotransmitter has combined with its
receptor, it is able to influence the membrane
potential of the postsynaptic neuron.
The postsynaptic receptor may be ionotropic, in
which case it will open a selective pore and allow
ions to flow to produce a postsynaptic potential
(PSP),
or it may be metabotropic and inform a G protein to
Neurotransmitters
The presynaptic terminal must provide for
the synthesis, packaging, and release of
the various transmitters. The non-peptide
transmitters
are
concentrated
inside
vesicles.
After release, transmitters are degraded or
transported back into the presynaptic
terminal
for
re-use.
The
vesicular
membranes are also recycled.
They are all hydrophilic and contain groups
that are charged at physiologic pH. Thus,
they do not readily pass through lipid
membranes.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters
Classes of Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are endogenous
chemicals that transmit signals from a
neuron to a target cell across a synapse.
1. Acetylcholine.
2. Amino acids glutamate, GABA
(GAMMA -
AMINOBUTYRIC ACID).
1- ACETYLCHOLINE
Acetylcholine (ACh) was the first recognized
transmitter. It is used by spinal motor neurons to
excite skeletal muscles; by the parasympathetic
nerves to communicate with various end organs,
including the vagus nerve slowing pacemaker
regions of the heart; in sympathetic and
parasympathetic ganglia; and in various locations
in the CNS.
ACh is synthesized from acetyl-CoA and choline
by the enzyme choline acetyl transferase (CAT),
found in the presynaptic cytoplasm.
2- AMINO ACIDS
A. GLUTAMATE
. Glutamate is the major excitatory neurotransmitter of the
CNS. It is a nonessential amino acid, but, because it cannot
pass the bloodbrain barrier, it must be synthesized in the
CNS.
. Ionotropic glutamate receptors, gluRs, also metabotropic
gluRs (mgluRs). All of these are normally activated by
glutamate.
B. GABA and GLYCINE
. Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and glycine are the
major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS.
. Glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) converts glutamate into
GABA in the presynaptic terminal cytoplasm.
. GABA is packaged and released as other transmitters.
3- BIOGENIC AMINES
The catecholamines, serotonin, and histamine are all biogenic amines.
A. The catecholamines are dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
(NE), and epinephrine (adrenaline) (EPI).
. Dopamine and NE are found in the CNS. NE is the principal final
transmitter of the sympathetic nervous system and EPI is made and
released by the adrenal medulla.
. There are two categories of adrenergic receptors:
. alpha-adrenergic receptors have a higher affinity for NE
. and beta-adrenergic receptors have a higher affinity for EPI.
. The alpha receptors are primarily found on the smooth muscle cells that
control the diameter of small blood vessels; NE acts to constrict these
vessels.
. The beta receptors are primarily in the heart and can make it beat faster
and harder.
. Muscle relaxation via adrenergic receptor activation occurs in smooth
muscle cells in the gut and the lungs.
. Most histamine in the body is released from mast cells (part of the
immune system) in response to antigens or tissue injury.
. Histamine also is a regulator of acid secretion in the gut and acts
as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system.
. Histamine release is associated with allergic reactions; it initiates
inflammatory responses, dilates blood vessels and increases
capillary permeability, decreases heart rate, and contracts smooth
muscles in the lung.
4. PURINES
. ATP is contained in synaptic vesicles and
released with NE in sympathetic
vasoconstrictor neurons.
. It induces constriction when applied
directly to the smooth muscles.
. P2X ATP receptors are ion channels that
permit the entry of Ca2+.
. These receptors are also in the brain.
5.PEPTIDES
.Neuropeptides are small polypeptides that are synthesized as larger inactive
precursors (propeptides).
.As they are proteins, they are synthesized in the cell body and transported in
vesicles to the terminals.
.There is no reuptake mechanism. Peptides are less concentrated than other
neurotransmitters in vesicles but have higher affinity for their receptors.
.Not much is known about the function of most neuropeptides in the CNS
except the opiate peptides, endorphin, enkephalin, and dynorphin, which
are involved in the regulation of pain perception. Three opiate receptors
have been identified, initially as the sites that bind synthetic opiates such as
morphine.
.There are many nonopiate peptides released from neurons. For example:
luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) are
involved in reproduction. Cholecystokinin (CCK), gastrin, and vasoactive
intestinal peptide (VIP) facilitate digestion.
4.
Temperature