Listrik AC

SPL

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Getting Power to Our Homes

Lets power our homes with DC power

DC means direct current: just like what batteries deliver

But want power plants far from home

and ability to ship electricity across states

So power lines are long

resistance no longer negligible
long transmission line
home
appliance

power plant

Rwire
looks like:
Spring 2006

Rload
Rwire

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Power Dissipated in an Electricity Distribution System

150 miles
120 Watt
Light bulb
Power Plant
on Colorado River

12 Volt
Connection Box

Estimate resistance of power lines: say 0.001 Ohms per meter, times
200 km = 0.001 /m 2105 m = 20 Ohms
We can figure out the current required by a single bulb using P = VI so I
= P/V = 120 Watts/12 Volts = 10 Amps (!)
Power in transmission line is P = I2R = 102 20 = 2,000 Watts!!
Efficiency is = 120 Watts/4120 Watts = 0.3%!!!
What could we change in order to do better?

Spring 2006

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

The Tradeoff
The thing that kills us most is the high current through
the (fixed resistance) transmission lines
Need less current
its that square in I2R that has the most dramatic effect

But our appliance needs a certain amount of power

P = VI so less current demands higher voltage

Solution is high voltage transmission

Repeating the above calculation with 12,000 Volts delivered
to the house draws only
I = 120 Watts/12 kV = 0.01 Amps for one bulb, giving
P = I2R = (0.01)220 = 2010 Watts, so
P = 0.002 Watts of power dissipated in transmission line
Efficiency in this case is = 120 Watts/120.004 = 99.996%
Spring 2006

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

DANGER!
But having high voltage in each household is a recipe
for disaster
sparks every time you plug something in
risk of fire
not cat-friendly

Need a way to step-up/step-down voltage at will

cant do this with DC, so go to AC

Spring 2006

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

A way to provide high efficiency, safe low voltage:

step-up to 500,000 V
step-down,
back to 5,000 V

~5,000 Volts

step-down to 120 V

Spring 2006

High Voltage Transmission Lines

Low Voltage to Consumers

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Transmission structures
three-phase live wires

to house

500,000
230,000
long-distance

Spring 2006

138,000 69,000 713,000

neighborhood

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Why is AC the solution?

AC, or alternating current, is necessary to carry out
the transformation
To understand why, we need to know something
about the relationship between electric current and
magnetic fields
Any current-carrying wire has a circulating magnetic
field around it:

Spring 2006

Electromagnet Coil

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

By arranging wire into a loop, you can make the

magnetic fields add up to a substantial field in the
middle

looks just like

a magnet

Spring 2006

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Induced Current
The next part of the story is that a changing magnetic
field produces an electric current in a loop
surrounding the field
called electromagnetic induction, or Faradays Law

Spring 2006

10

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Transformer is just wire coiled around metal

Magnetic field is generated by
current in primary coil
Iron core channels magnetic
field through secondary coil
Secondary Voltage is
V2
= (N2/N1) V1
Secondary Current is
I2 = (N1/N2) I1
But Power in = Power out
negligible power lost in
transformer
Works only for AC, not DC

If the primary wires and secondary wires dont actually connect,

how does the energy get from the primary circuit to the
secondary circuit?!
Spring 2006

11

Typical Transformers

Spring 2006

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

12

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Alternating Current (AC) vs. Direct Current (DC)

AC is like a battery where the terminals exchange sign
periodically!
AC sloshes back and forth in the wires
Recall when we hooked up a bulb to a battery, the
direction of current flow didnt affect its brightness
Although net electron flow over one cycle is zero, can
still do useful work!
Imagine sawing (back & forth), or rubbing hands together to
generate heat

Spring 2006

13

Alternating current
An alternating current (ac) is the electrical
current which varies periodically with time
in direction and magnitude.
An ac circuit and ac generator, provide an
alternating current.
The usual circuit-diagram symbol for an ac
source is
.

14

The output of an ac generator is

sinusoidal
and varies with time.
Current
where:

I
I0
0

I0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

I I o sin t

I : instantaneous
current @ current at
time t (in Ampere)

I o : peak current

T : period
: angular frequency

15

 voltage

where:

V0
0

V0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

V Vo sin t

V : instantaneous
voltage @ voltage at
time t (in Volt)
Vo : peak volta ge

T : period

: angular frequency
16

Vo
Io

T/2

The output of an ac generator is

sinusoidal
and varies with time.
II
Equation for the current ( I ) :

Equation for the voltage ( V ) :

sin t

V Vo sin t
17

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

= 170 Volts

= -170 Volts

120 VAC is a root-mean-square number: peak-to-peak is 340 Volts!

Spring 2006

18

Terminology in a.c.
Frequency ( f )
Definition: Number of complete cycle in one second.
Unit: Hertz (Hz) or s-1
Period ( T )
Definition: Time taken for one complete cycle.
Unit: second (s)
1
Equation :

Peak (maximum) current ( Io )

Definition: Magnitude of the
Peak (maximum) voltage ( Vo )
Definition: Magnitude
Angular frequency ( )
Equation:

maximum current.

of the maximum voltage.

2f

Unit: radian per second (rads-1)

19

SUBTOPIC :
21.2 Root Mean Square (rms) (1 hour)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :
a) Define root mean square (rms), current and
voltage for AC source.
b) Use I rms

Io
2

, Vrms

Vo
2

20
20

Root mean square (rms)

Root mean square current (Irms) is defined as the effective
value of a.c. which produces the same power (mean/average
power) as the steady d.c. when the current passes through
the same resistor.

powerdc average powerac

I 2 R I 2 ave R

the average or mean

value of current in a
half-cycle flows of
current in a certain
direction

I I 2 ave
square root of the average
value of the current
I rms

2Io Io
I av

2

I I 2 ave I rms
The r.m.s (root mean square) current means the
square root of the average value of the current.
Root mean square voltage/p.d (Vrms ) is defined as the value
of the steady direct voltage which when applied across a
resistor, produces the same power as the mean (average)
power produced by the alternating voltage across the same
resistor.
V

P Pave
V 2 V 2 ave

R
R

V=Vo sin t V V 2 ave V

rms

22

I rms

I0

Vrms

V0

only for a sinusoidal

alternating current and voltage
2
V
The average power,
2
Pave I rmsVrms I rms
R rms
R

I o Vo 1
Po
Pave
I oVo
2
2 2 2

The peak power, Po I oVo

Most household electricity is 240 V AC which
means that Vrms is 240 V.
23

Example 21.2.1
A sinusoidal, 60.0 Hz, ac voltage is read to be 120 V
by an ordinary voltmeter.
a) What is the maximum value the voltage takes on
during a cycle?
b) What is the equation for the voltage ?
a)

Vrms

Vo

Vo 2 (Vrms ) 2 (120) 170 V

b) V Vo sin t

V 170 sin 120t

24

Example 21.2.2
A voltage V= 60 sin 120t is applied across a 20
resistor.
a) What will an ac ammeter in series with the
resistor read ?
b) Calculate the peak current and mean power.

a) V Vo 60 42.4V I Vrms 42.4 2.12 A

rms
rms
R
20
2
2
b)

I rms

I0

Pav I rms R
2

(2.12) (20) 90 W
2

I o 2 ( I rms ) 2 (2.12) 3.0 A

25

Example 21.2.3
V (Volt )
200
0

200

0.02

0.04

0.06 0.08

t (second )

and

The alternating potential difference shown above is

connected across a resistor of 10 k. Calculate
a. the r.m.s. current,
b. the frequency,
c. the mean power dissipated in the resistor.

26

Solution 21.2.3
R =10 x 10-3 ,

a) I rms
I rms

b)

Vrms

V0 = 200 V and T = 0.04 s

and Vrms

V0

R 2

1
f
T

V0

I rms 0.014 A

f 25.0 Hz

c) Pav I rms 2 R

Pav 1.96 W
27

Exercise 21.2
An ac current is given as I = 5 sin (200t) where the
clockwise direction of the current is positive. Find
a)The peak current
b)The current when t = 1/100 s
c) The frequency and period of the oscillation.

5 A , 4.55 A, 31.88 Hz, 0.0314 s

28

SUBTOPIC :
21.3 Resistance, reactance and
impedance (2 hours)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :
a) Sketch and use phasor diagram and sinusoidal
waveform to show the phase relationship
between current and voltage for a single
component circuit consisting of
i) Pure resistor
ii) Pure capacitor
iii) Pure inductor
29
29

b) Define and use:

i) capacitive reactance, X c
ii) inductive reactance,

1
2fC

X L 2fL

2
2
iii) impedance, Z R ( X L X C ) , and

( X L XC )
phase angle, tan
R
1

c) Use phasor diagram to analyse voltage, current, and

impedance of series circuit of:
i) RC
ii) RL
iii) RLC
30
30

Resistance, reactance and impedance

Phasor diagram
Phasor is defined as a vector that rotate
anticlockwise about its axis with constant angular
velocity.
A diagram containing phasor is called phasor
diagram.
It is used to represent

a sinusoidal alternating
quantity such as current and voltage.
It also being used to determine the phase
difference between current and voltage in ac circuit.
31

Phasor diagram
y

y
Ao

N
O

A Ao sin t

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

The projection of OP on the vertical axis (Oy) is ON,

represents the instantaneous value.
Ao is the peak value of the quantity.
32

Resistance, reactance and impedance

Key Term/
Meaning
Resistance,R Opposition to current flow in purely
resistive circuit.
Reactance,X Opposition to current flow resulting from
inductance or capacitance in ac
circuit.
Capacitive
reactance,Xc

Opposition of a capacitor to ac.

Inductive
Opposition of an inductor to ac.
reactance,XL
Impedance, Z Total opposition to ac.
(Resistance and reactance combine
to form impedance)
33

i) Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

VR

Phasor diagram
34

i) Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

The current flows in the resistor is

I I 0 sin t
The voltage across the resistor VR at any instant is

VR IR
VR I 0 R sin t
VR V0 sin t V

I 0 R V0
V : Supply voltage

The phase difference between V and I is

t t
0
In pure resistor, the voltage V is in phase with the
current I and constant with time.(the current and the
voltage reach their maximum values at the same time).
35

i) Pure Resistor in the AC Circuit

Vrms Vo
R

I rms I o

The resistance in a pure resistor is

The instantaneous power,
2
V
P IV I 2 R
R
P I o sin t Vo sin t

The average power,

2
Pave I rms
R

1 2
Io R
2
1
Vo I o
2
1
Po
2

P I oVo sin t
2

Power (P )

P0

1
T
2

3
T
2

2T

A resistor in ac circuit dissipates energy in the form of heat

36

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

Pure capacitor means that no resistance and
self-inductance effect in the a.c. circuit.

rad
2

VR

V
Phasor diagram
37

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied across a

capacitor, the voltage reaches its maximum value
one quarter of a cycle after the current reaches its
maximum value,( rad )
2

The voltage across the capacitor VC at any instant

is equal to the supply voltage V and is given by

V V0 sin( t ) VC
2

The charge accumulates on the plates of the

capacitor is
Q CV
C

Q CV0 sin( t )
2

dQ
The current flows in the ac circuit is I
dt
38

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

I CV0 sin t
dt
2

I CV0 sin t
dt
2

I CV0 cos( t ) and

2
or
I I 0 sin t

CV0 I 0

The phase difference between V and I is

t t
2

39

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

In pure capacitor,
the voltage V lags behind the current I by /2 radians or the
current I leads the voltage V by /2 radians.
The capacitive reactance in a pure capacitor is
Vrms Vo
Vo
XC

I rms I o CVo

1
1
XC

C 2fC
The capacitive reactance is defined as

1
1
XC

C 2fC
40

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

The instantaneous power,

The average power,

2
V
P IV I 2 R
Power (P )
R
P0
P I o sin t Vo cos t
2
1

P I oVo sin 2t
0
1
2

T
2
P0
1

P Po sin 2t
2
2

Pave 0

3
T
2

2T

For the first half of the cycle where the power is

negative, the power is returned to the circuit. For
the second half cycle where the power is positive,
the capacitor is saving the power.
41

Example 21.3.1

ii) Pure Capacitor in the AC Circuit

An 8.00 F capacitor is connected to the terminals of

an AC generator with an rms voltage of 150 V and a
frequency of 60.0 Hz. Find the capacitive reactance
rms current and the peak current in the circuit.
Capacitive reactance,

1
1
Xc

332
C 2fC
Rms current,

Peak current ?

I rms

Vrms

0.452 A
XC
42

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

Pure inductor means that
no resistance and
capacitance effect in the
a.c. circuit.

VL

Phasor diagram

rad
2
43

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied across a

inductor, the voltage reaches its maximum value
one quarter of a cycle before the current reaches its

maximum value,( rad )

2

The current flows in the ac circuit is I I 0 sin t

When the current flows in the inductor, the back emf
caused by the self induction is produced and given by

dI
B L
dt
d
B L I 0 sin t
dt

B LI 0 cos t
44

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

At each instant the supply voltage V must be equal

to the back e.m.f B (voltage across the inductor)
but the back e.m.f always oppose the supply voltage V.
Hence, the magnitude of V and B ,

V B LI 0 cos t

V LI 0 sin t
2

0
V B IR
V B

or

V Vo sin t
2

where Vo LI o
45

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

The phase difference between V and I is

t t
2

In pure inductor,
the voltage V leads the current I by /2 radians or the current I
lags behind the voltage V by /2 radians.
The inductive reactance in a pure inductor is

Vrms Vo LI o
XL

I rms I o
Io
X L L 2 fL

46

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

The inductive reactance is defined as

X L L 2 fL

The instantaneous power,

The average power,
2
V
Pave 0
P IV I 2 R
R
Power (P )
P I o sin t Vo cos t
P0
2
1

P I oVo sin 2t
2

0
3
2T
1
T
T
T
1

2
P Po sin 2t
2
P0

For the first half of the cycle where the power is

positive, the inductor is saving the power. For
the second half cycle where the power is
negative, the power is returned to the
circuit.
47

Example 21.3.2

iii) Pure Inductor in the AC Circuit

A coil having an inductance of 0.5 H is connected to

a 120 V, 60 Hz power source. If the resistance of the
coil is neglected, what is the effective current
through the coil.

I rms

Vrms Vrms

0.64 A
X L 2fL

Example 21.3.3
A 240 V supply with a frequency of 50 Hz causes a current of
3.0 A to flow through an pure inductor. Calculate the
inductance of the inductor.

V
X L 80
I
X L 2fL L 0.26 H

48

i) RC in series circuit

VC

VR
I
V

VR
VC

: phase angle
V supply voltage

Phasor diagram

In the circuit diagram :

VR and VC represent the instantaneous voltage
across the resistor and the capacitor.
In the phasor diagram :
VR and VC represent the peak voltage across the
resistor and the capacitor.
49

i) RC in series circuit

Note

Vo VRo VCo

VC

Vo I o R I o X L
2

Vo

Vo I o

V I

Phasor diagram

X C ...divide both side by 2

2

XC

R 2 X C 2

1
V I R 2 2
C
2

Vrms I rms

Io R 2 Io X L 2
2

VR

50

i) RC in series circuit

VR

VC

VR

VC

: phase angle
V supply voltage

Phasor diagram

The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and C is

equal to the vector sum of VR and VC as shown in
the phasor diagram.
1
2
V 2 VR2 VC2
V I R 2 2
VR IR
C
2
2
2
V IR IX C
VC IX C
V 2 I 2 R2 X 2
C

and

1
XC
C

51

i) RC in series circuit

VR

VC

XC

Phasor diagram

The impedance in RC
circuit,

1
I R 2 2
C

I
2

V
Z rms
I rms

1
Z R 2 2
C

Impedance diagram

From the phasor diagrams,

I leads V by
VC
tan
VR

XC
tan
R

or

IX C
tan
IR

1
tan
CR
52

i) RC in series circuit

Z
1
XC
2fC

R
f

0
Graph of Z against f

53

i) RC in series circuit
Example 21.3.4
An alternating current of angular frequency of
1.0 x 104 rad s-1 flows through a 10 k resistor
and a 0.10 F capacitor which are connected in
series. Calculate the rms voltage across the
capacitor if the rms voltage across the resistor is
20 V.

From

XC
tan
R

and

XC
1
tan

0.1
R CR

VC
tan
VR
VC
0.1
VR

VC 20 0.1 2.0 V
54

ii) RL in series circuit

VR

VL

I
V

VL

: phase angle
V supply voltage

VR

Phasor diagram

The voltage across the resistor VR and the capacitor

VL are

VR IR

VL IX L

55

ii) RL in series circuit

VR

VL

VL

VR

I
V

: phase angle
V supply voltage

Phasor diagram

The total p.d (supply voltage), V across R and L is

equal to the vector sum of VR and VL as shown in
the phasor diagram.
V 2 VR2 VL2
V IR IX L
2

V 2 I 2 R 2 X L2
and

X L L

V I R L
2

56

2 2

ii) RL in series circuit

VL

XL

VR

Phasor diagram

Vrms I R L
Z

I rms
I
2

Impedance diagram

From the phasor diagrams,

The impedance in RC
circuit,

Z R 2 2 L2

2 2

V leads I by
VL
tan
VR

IX L
tan
IR

XL
tan
R

or
L
tan
R
57

ii) RL in series circuit

Z
X L 2fL

R
f

0
Graph of Z against f

58

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VR

VC

59

VL

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VR

VC

VL VC

VR

VC

Phasor diagram

60

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VL

VR

VC

VL VC

VC

VR

Phasor diagram

The voltage across the inductor VL , resistor VR and

capacitor VC are
V IX V IR VC IX C
L

61

iii) RLC in series circuit

L

VL

VR

VC

VL

VL VC

VR

I
VC

Phasor diagram

The total p.d (supply voltage), V across L, R and C

is equal to the vector sum of VL ,VR and VC as
shown in the phasor diagram.
2
V 2 VR2 VL VC

V IR IX L IX C

I R
2

X L XC

V I R X L XC
2

62

iii) RLC in series circuit

VL

VL VC

VR

VC

XL

X L XC

XC

Impedance diagram

Phasor diagram

From the phasor diagrams,

The impedance in RLC

circuit,

Vrms I R X L X C
Z

I rms
I
2

Z R2 X L X C

V leads I by
2

I X L XC
tan
IR
1

X L XC
C

tan
tan
R
R
VL VC
tan
VR

63

Resonance in RLC series circuit

Resonance is defined as the phenomenon that
occurs when the frequency of the applied voltage
is equal to the frequency of the LRC series circuit.

X C , X L , R, Z

The series resonance

circuit is used for
tuning a radio receiver.

XL f
R

fr

1
XC
f
f

Graph of impedance Z, inductive reactance

XL, capacitive reactance XC and resistance R
with frequency.
64

Resonance in RLC circuit

X C , X L , R, Z

The graph shows that :

at low frequency, impedance Z
is large because 1/C is large.
at high frequency, impedance Z
is high because L is large.

XL f
R

fr

1
XC
f
f

at resonance, impedance Z is minimum (Z=R)

which is
2
2
X X
L

1
2f r L
2f r C
resonant
frequency

fr

1
2 LC

and I is maximum

Z R X L XC

Z min R 2 0
Z min R

Vrms Vrms
I rms

Z
R

65

66

EXERCISE

iii) RLC in series circuit

Example 21.3.5

A series circuit contains a 50 resistor adjacent

to a 200 mH inductor attached to a 0.050F
capacitor, all connected across an ac generator
with a terminal sinusoidal voltage of 150 V
effective.
a)What is the resonant frequency ? (1.59 kHz)
b)What voltages will be measured by voltmeters
across each element at resonance ? (150V,6kV)
c) What is the voltage across the series
combination of the inductor and capacitor ?
c) Write the equation for the supply voltage at fr.
67

Example 21.3.6

iii) RLC in series circuit

A 200 resistor, a 0.75 H inductor and a capacitor of

capacitance C are connected in series to an alternating
source 250 V, fr = 600 Hz.
Calculate
a. the inductive reactance and capacitive
reactance when resonance is occurred.
b. the capacitance C.
c. the impedance of the circuit at resonance.
d. the current flows through the circuit at
resonance.
e. Sketch the phasor diagram.

68

Solution 21.3.6

iii) RLC in series circuit

R = 200 , L = 0.75 H ,Vrms = 250 V, f = 600 Hz.

a) X L L 2.83 k

X C 2.83 k

1
, C 93.9 nF
b) 2.83 x10
2fC
3

c)

VL

Z = R = 200

d) I rms

Vrms Vrms

1.25 A
Z
R

e)

VR
VC
69

Exercise 21.3

iii) RLC in series circuit

A series RLC circuit has a resistance of 25.0 , a

capacitance of 50.0 F, and an inductance of
0.300 H. If the circuit is driven by a 120 V, 60 Hz
source, calculate
a)The total impedance of the circuit
b)The rms current in the circuit
c) The phase angle between the voltage and the
current.
64.9 , 1.85 A, 67.3o

70

SUBTOPIC :
21.4 Power and power factor (1 hour)
LEARNING OUTCOMES :
At the end of this lesson, students should
be able to :
a) Apply
i) average power, Pav I rmsVrms cos
ii) instantaneous power, P IV
Pav
Pr

iii) power factor, cos

Pa I rmsVrms

in AC circuit consisting of R, RC, RL and RLC in

series
71
71

21.4 Power and power factor

In an ac circuit , the power is only dissipated by
a resistance, none is dissipated by inductance or
capacitance.
Therefore, the real power (Pr) that is used or gone
is given by the average power (Pave) i.e :
2

Pave I rms R Pr

Pave I rmsVR rms (1)

rms voltage
across resistor
72

(for RLC circuit)

VL

VL VC

VR

VC

XL

X L XC

XC

Phasor diagram

Impedance diagram

From the diagrams above,

VR
R
cos
and cos
V
Z
(2) into (1)

.. (2)

Pave I rms Z cos

2

V=rms
supply
voltage

Pave

or
I rmsV cos

Pave
cos
Pa

Papparent Pa
73

 The term cos is called the power factor.

The power factor (cos ) can vary from a

maximum of +1 to a minimum of 0.
When = 0o (cos =+1) ,the circuit is completely
resistive or when the circuit is in resonance (RCL).
When = +90o (cos =0) ,the circuit is completely
inductive.
When = -90o (cos =0) ,the circuit is completely
capacitive.

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 The power factor can be expressed either as a

percentage or a decimal.
A typical circuit has a power factor of less than 1
(less than 100%).
Example :
A motor has a power factor of 80% and the motor
consumes 800 W to operate. In order to operate
properly, the motor must be supplied with more power
than it consumes i.e.1000 W .
power factor
(80%)

Pave
cos
Pa

800 W (consume)
1000 W (supply)
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Example 21.4.1
An oscillator set for 500 Hz puts out a sinusoidal voltage
of 100 V effective. A 24.0 resistor, a 10.0F capacitor,
and a 50.0 mH inductor in series are wired across the
terminals of the oscillator.
a) What will an ammeter in the circuit read ?
b) What will a voltmeter read across each
element ?
c) What is the real power dissipated in the
circuit?
d) Calculate the power supply.
e) Find the power factor.
f) What is the phase angle?

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Solution 21.4.1

f=500 Hz , V=100 V , R=24.0 , C=10.0F, L=50.0 mH.

a)

b)

Vrms
I rms
784 mA
Z
VR IR 18.8 V
VL IX L 123 V
VC IX C 24.9 V

c) Real power ?

Pave I rmsV cos

Pave 0.784 100 0.188

Pave 14.7 W Pr
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d) Power supply, Pa I rmsVrms

0.784(100)
78.4 W

e) Power factor,
R
cos 0.188
Z
f)

cos 0.188

cos (0.188)
1

79.16

78

UCSD: Physics 8; 2006

Assignments
Read pp. 353368 to accompany this lecture
Read pp. 391392, 398403 (dont fret over the
complicated explanation of the diode)
HW #3: Chapter 10: E.2, E.10, E.32, P.2, P.13, P.14,
P.15, P.18, P.19, P.23, P.24, P.25, P.27, P.28, P.30,
P.32
Q/O #2 due 4/28
Midterm 5/04 (next Thu.) 2PM WLH 2005
will prepare study guide and post online
will have review session next week (time TBA)

Spring 2006

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