Chapter 3

Scientific Measurement

Measurement
In chemistry, #s are either very small or very
large
1 gram of hydrogen =
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms
Mass of an atom of gold =
0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 327 gram

Scientific Notation
Condensed form of writing large or small numbers
When a given number is written as the
product of 2 numbers
M x 10n
M must be:
greater than or equal to 1
less than 10

n must be:
whole number
positive or negative

 Find M by moving the decimal point

over in the original number to the
left or right so that only one non-zero
number is to the left of the decimal.

Find n by counting the number of

places you moved the decimal:
To the left (+) or
To the right (-)

Scientific Notation Examples

20 = 2.0 x 101
200 = 2.0 x 102
501 = 5.01 x 102
3
2.000
x
10
2000 =

More examples
0.3 = 3 x 10-1
0.21 = 2.1 x 10-1
0.06 = 6 x 10-2
0.0002 = 2 x 10-4
0.000314 = 3.14 x 10-4

Rule:
If a number starts out
as < 1, the exponent
is always negative.

Scientific Notation
Adding & Subtracting:
if they have the same n, just add or subtract the
M values and keep same n
if they dont have the same n, change them so
they do

Scientific Notation
Multiplying:
the M values are multiplied
the n values are added

Scientific Notation
Division:
the M values are divided
the n values are subtracted

Accuracy & Precision

How close you are really
counts!

Accuracy
Accuracy a measure of how close a
measurement comes to the actual or true
value of what is measured
To evaluate the measured
value must be compared
to the correct value

Precision
Precision a measure of how close a series
of measurements are to one another
To evaluate you must compare the values of
2 or more repeated measurements

Accuracy vs. Precision

Errors are Unavoidable

Measuring instruments have limitations

Hence, there will always be errors in

measurement.

Not All Errors are Equal

Consider the following two errors:
You are an eye surgeon
You fly from NY to
San Francisco

Your scalpel misses the

Your plane is blown off
mark by 3cm
course by 3cm
The errors sound equal but are they?

Absolute Error
The error in each of the previous examples is 3cm
But the error in each is not equivalent!
This type of error is the absolute error.
Absolute error = | measured value accepted value |
Accepted value is the most probable value or the
value based on references
Only the size of the error matters, not the sign

Significance of an Error
The absolute error tells you how far you are from
the accepted value
It does not tell you how significant the error is.
o

Being 3cm off course on a trip to San Francisco

is insignificant because the city of San
Francisco is very large.
Being 3cm off if you are an eye surgeon means
your operating on the wrong eye!

It is necessary to compare the size of the error to

the size of what is being measured to understand
the significance of the error.

Percentage Error
The percentage error compares the absolute
error to the size of what is being measured.

% error = |measured value accepted value| x 100%

accepted value

Sample Problem
Example: Measuring the boiling point of H2O
Thermometer reads 99.1OC
You know it should read 100OC
Error = measured value accepted value
% error =

|error|
accepted value

x 100%

% error =

|99.1oC 100.0oC|
100oC

0.9o C x 100%
100o C

= 0.009 x 100%
= 0.9%

x 100%

Significant Figures
Used as a way to express which numbers
are known with certainty and which are
estimated

What are significant figures?

Significant Figures
all the digits that are known, plus
a last digit that is estimated

Rules
1) All digits 1-9 are significant
3 sig figs
Example: 129
2) Embedded zeros between significant digits
are always significant
4 sig figs
Example: 5,007
3) Trailing zeros in a number are significant only if
the number contains a decimal point
Example: 100.0 4 sig figs
2 sig figs
3600

4) Leading zeros at the beginning of a number

are never significant
Example: 0.0025
2 sig figs
5) Zeros following a decimal significant
figure are always significant
3 sig figs
Example: 0.000470
5 sig figs
0.47000
6) Exceptions to the rule are numbers with an
unlimited number of sig figs
Example = Counting 25 students
Exact quantities 1hr = 60min, 100cm = 1m

Significant Figure Examples

123m = 3
9.8000 x 104m = 5
0.070 80 = 4
40, 506 = 5
22 meter sticks = unlimited
98, 000 = 2
143 grams = 3
0.000 73m = 2
8.750 x 10-2g = 4

Calculations Using
Significant Figures
Rounding
1st determine the number of sig figs
Then, count from the left, & round
If the digit < 5, the value remains the same.
If the digit is 5, the value of the last sig fig
is increased by 1.

Try your hand at rounding

Round each measurement to 3 sig figs.

87.073 meters = 87.1m

4.3621 x 108 meters = 4.36 x 108 m
0.01552 meter = 0.0155m or 1.55 x 10-2m
9009 meters = 9010m
-3
1.78
x
10
m
-3
1.7777 x 10 meter =
2
630.
m
or
6.30
x
10
m
629.55 meters =

 Multiplying and Dividing

Limit and round to the least number of
significant figures in any of the factors.
23.0cm x 432cm x 19cm = 188,784cm3
Answer = 190,000cm3 or 1.9 x 103cm3
Because 19 only has 2 sig figs

 Addition and Subtraction

Limit and round your answer to least
number of decimal places in any of the
numbers that make up your answer.
123.25mL + 46.0mL + 86.257mL = 255.507mL

Answer = 255.5mL
Because 46.0 has only 1 decimal place

The International
System of Units

 Based on the #10

Makes conversions easier
Old name = metric system

Units and Quantities

Length the distance between 2 points or
Base unit = meter
Volume the space occupied by any sample of matter
V = length x width x height
Base unit = liter
Based on a 10cm cube
(10cm x 10cm x 10cm = 1000cm3)
1 liter = 1000cm3

objects

 Mass the amount of matter contained in

an object
Base unit = gram
Different than weight
Weight - a force that
measures the pull of gravity

 Temperature a measure of the energy of

motion
How fast are the molecules moving?

When 2 objects are at different

temperatures heat is always
transferred from the warmer
the colder object

Temperature Scales
Celsius scale
Freezing point of H2O = 0oC
Boiling point of H2O = 100oC
Kelvin scale
Freezing point of H2O = 273.15K
Boiling point of H2O = 373.15K

K = C + 273
C = K - 273

Temperature Scale Conversions

Conversion Factors
and
Unit Cancellation

A physical quantity must include:

Number + Unit

1 foot = 12 inches

1 foot = 12 inches
1 foot
12 inches

1 foot = 12 inches
1 foot
12 inches
12 inches
1 foot

1 foot

12 inches

12 inches

1 foot

Conversion factors

1 foot

12 inches

12 inches

1 foot

Conversion factors

How many inches are in 3 feet?

3 feet

)(

12 inches
1 foot

36 inches

How many cm are in 1.32 meters?

equality: 1 m = 100 cm
conversion factors:
______
1m
100 cm
X cm = 1.32 m

or

100
cm
______

1m

100 cm
______
1m

= 132 cm

We use the idea of unit cancellation

to decide upon which one of the two
conversion factors we choose.

How many meters is 8.72 cm?

equality: 1 m = 100 cm
conversion factors:
______
1m
100 cm
X m = 8.72 cm

or

1m
______
100 cm

100 cm
______
1m

= 0.0872 m

Again, the units must cancel.

How many feet is 39.37 inches?

equality: 1 ft = 12 in
conversion factors:
______
1 ft
12 in
X ft = 39.37 in

or

( )
____
1 ft
12 in

______
12 in
1 ft
= 3.28 ft

Again, the units must cancel.

How many kilometers is

15,000 decimeters?

X km = 15,000 dm

( )(
1m
____

1 km
______

10 dm

1,000 m

= 1.5 km

How many seconds

is 4.38 days?

( )(

24 h
X s = 4.38 d ____
1d

)( )

60
min
_____
1h

60 s
____
1 min

= 378,432 s
If we are accounting for significant
figures, we would change this to

3.78 x 105 s

Why do some objects float in

water while others sink?

Need to know the ratio of the mass of an

object to its volume
Pure H2O at 4oC = 1.000g/cm3
If an object has a lower ratio it will float
If an object has a greater ratio it will sink

Density
The ratio of an objects mass to its volume
Density =

mass
volume

Example: A 10.0cm3 piece of lead has a mass of

114g. What is the density of lead?
114g
= 11.4g/cm3
10.0cm3

 Recall
What type of property is density?
Does the density of a material change in
relation to the sample size?

NO density is an Intensive property

it depends only on the composition of
the material

What might affect a substances

density?
Temperature
The volume of most substances with an in
temperature
the mass remains the same

If the volume increases what affect does it have on

a substances density?

The density decreases

*Exception H2O
Waters volume with a in temperature
Its density decreases & ice floats

Calculating Density
What is the volume of a pure silver coin that has
a mass of 14g, and a density of 10.5g/cm3?
D = 10.5g/cm3
M = 14g
V=?

Rearrange the density

formula to solve for V

V=

M
D

3
3
1.3cm
g
V=
14g
= 14 x 1 cm =
10.5g/cm3
10.5 g

What is the mass of mercury that has a density

of 13.5g/cm3 and a volume of 0.324cm 3?
Once again, rearrange the
density formula and solve
for M.

M=DxV

M
D

M = 13.5g x 0.342 cm3 = 4.62g

cm3