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ARGUMENT
GOOD ARGUMENT
That argument in which the promises
really do support the conclusion.
BAD ARGUMENT
The argument in which the premises do
not support the conclusion though they
claim to.
STATEMENT
A statement is a declarative sentence e.g. the following
sentences are statements:
Al is attacked by HCl
Orange is a good source of vitamin C
Argentina is located in North America
Napoleon prevailed over water loo.
Ahmad was a painter, and Iqbal was a poet.
The first two statements are true, the second two false.
The last one expressed two statements, both of which
are true.
PREMISES
The premises are the statements that set
forth the reasons or evidence and the
conclusion;
CONCLUSION
Is the statement that the evidence is claimed to support or
imply. In other words, the conclusion is a statement that is
claimed to follow from the premises. E.g.
Therefore
Wherefore
Accordingly
We may conclude
Hence
Entail that
Thus
Consequently
We may infer
It must be that
Whence
So
It follows that
it implies that
As a result
CLAIMED EVIDENCE
Premises
Conclusion
WHAT IS CLAIMED TO FOLLOW FROM EVIDENCE
Since
in that
seeing that
as indicated by
became
for
may be inferred from
as
give that
for the reason that
in as such as
owing to.
CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
It is an if then statement, e.g.
If Mr. A work hard then he will pass.
Every conditional statement is made up of two component
statements. The component statement immediately
following the if is called antecedent and the one
following the then is called the consequent.
In the above example the antecedent is Mr. A work hard
and the consequent is He will pass.
EXPLANATION
An explanation consists of a statement or group of statements intended to shed
light on some phenomenon that is usually accepted as a matter of fact e.g.
The challenger space craft exploded after lift off because an o ring failed In one of
the booster rockets.
The sky appears blue after the earth surface because light rays from the sun are
scattered by particles in the atmosphere.
Cows can digest grass, while human can not, because their digestive system
contains enzymes not found in humans.
Every explanation is composed of two distinct components: the explanation and
the explanans.
EXPLANANDUM
EXPLANANS
The explanans is the statement or
group of statement
that purports to do the explaining.
In the first example above explanadum
is the statement,
the challenger space craft exploded
after lift off and
the explanans is an o-ring failed in one
of the booster rocket.
DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
It is an argument in which the premises are
claimed to support the conclusion in such a
way that it is impossible for the premises to
be true and the conclusion false. In such
arguments the conclusion is claimed to
follow necessarily from the premises.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
It is an argument in which the premises are
claimed to support the conclusion in such a
way that it is improbable that the premises be
true and the conclusion false. In these
arguments the conclusion is claimed to follow
only probably from the premises.
it
ii.
CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
It is syllogism in which each statement
begins with one of the words all no or
some e.g.
All lasers are optical devices
Some lasers are surgical instruments
therefore, some optical devices are surgical
instruments.
A HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISM
It is a syllogism having a conditional statement
for one or both of its premises e.g.
If electricity flows through a conductor, then a
magnetic field is produced.
If a magnetic field is produced then a nearby
compass will be deflected.
Therefore, if electricity flows through a conductor,
then a nearby compass will be deflected.
DISJUNCTIVE SYLLOGISM
It is a syllogism having a disjunctive statement ( i.e. an
either.. or . statement) for one of its premises e.g.
Either breach of contract is a crime or it is not
punishable by the state.
Breach of contract is not a crime.
Therefore, it is not punishable by the state.
PREDICTION
In a prediction, the premises deals with some
known event in the present or past, and the
conclusion moves beyond this event to some
event in the relative future e.g. some one might
argue that because certain meteorological
phenomena have been observed over NWFP, a
storm will occur there in coming two hours. Again
one might argue that because certain fluctuations
occurred in the prime interest rate on Friday, the
value of the dollar will decrease against foreign
currencies on Monday.
AN INDUCTIVE GENERALIZATION
It is an argument that proceeds from the
knowledge of a selected sample to some claim
about the whole group. Because the members of
the sample have a certain characteristics, it is
argued that all the members of the group have the
same characteristics e.g. one might argue that
because three apples selected from a certain crate
were especially tasty and juicy, all the apples from
that crate are especially tasty and juicy.
CAUSAL INFERENCE
It underlines argument that proceeds from
knowledge of a cause to knowledge of the effect,
or conversely from knowledge of the effect to
knowledge of the cause. e.g.
From the knowledge that a bottle of medicine
had been accidentally left in the freezer
overnight, someone might conclude that it had
frozen (cause to effect) conversely, after tasting
a piece of chicken and finding it dry and crunchy,
one might conclude that it had been overcooked
(effect to cause)
TRUTH VALADITY
SOUNDNESS STRENGTH
AND COGENCY
INVALID DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT
SOUND ARGUMENT
A sound argument is a deductive
argument that is valid and has all true
premises. Both condition must be met
for an argument to be sound. A sound
argument, therefore, is what is meant
by a good deductive argument in the
fullest sense of the term.
For example:
All dictionaries are books.
Kitabistan is a dictionary.
Therefore Kitabistan is a book.
UNSOUND ARGUMENT
An unsound argument is a deductive
argument that is invalid has one or more
false premises, or both. For an
argument to be unsound, the false
premise or premises must actually be
needed to support the conclusion.
For example:
All students are intelligent.
Akbar is intelligent.
Therefore, Akbar is a student.
INDUCTIVE ARGUMENT
Inductive argument is the one in which
the premises are claimed to support the
conclusion in such a way that it is
improbable that the premises be true and
the conclusion false.
STRONG INDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT
It is an inductive argument such that it is
improbable that the premises be true and
the conclusion false. In such arguments,
the conclusion follows probably from the
premises e.g.
COGENT ARGUMENT
It is an inductive argument that is strong
and has all true premises. In a cogent
argument the premises must not only be
true, they must also not ignore some
important piece of evidence that outweighs
the given evidence and entail a quite
different conclusion. e.g.
For example:
All previous Pakistani presidents were
men.
Therefore, probably the next Pakistani
president will be a man.
UNCOGENT ARGUMENT
An un cogent argument is an inductive
argument that is weak has one or more false
premises or both. e.g.
All previous Pakistani presidents were women.
Therefore, probably the next Pakistani president
will be a woman.
INDEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT
STRONG
COGENT
WEAK
UNCOGENT
STATEMENT
True
False
DEDUCTIVE
ARGUMENT
VALID
SOUND
INVALID
UNSOUND