Theories of Motivation

Motivation and Behavior

Components and Theories of
Emotion
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

hings Youll Learn in Chapter 10

Q1

Q2

Q3

Why might paying students to get

good grades be a good idea?
How can just looking at pictures of
high-fat foods make you feel
hungry?
Why is motivation a better predictor
of math success in children than IQ?

Q4

How can simply smiling reduce

stress?

Q5

Why do emotional expressions of

Olympic athletes appear the same
across
cultures?
2014 all
John Wiley
& Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Movere
Latin
meaning
to move
Motivation:
set of factors that
activate, direct
and maintain
behavior, usually
toward some goal

Emotion:
subjective
feeling that
includes arousal,
cognitions, and
expressed
behaviors

2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

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Major Theories of Motivation

Biological
1. Instinct
2. Drive reduction
3. Optimal arousal

Psychological
4. Incentive
5. Cognitive

As you learn each

theory, try to
identify which
theory best
explains your
personal
behaviors.

Biopsychosocial
6. Maslows hierarchy of needs
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Biological Theories: Instinct

Instincts = a fixed, unlearned
response pattern found in almost all
members of a species
Williams McDougall (1908) proposed
the first instincts (repulsion,
curiosity, self-assertiveness) and the
list grew to 10,000+ by 1920s.
Sociobioligists believe instincts,
like competitiveness, are
genetically transmitted
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Biological: Drive-reduction
Drive-reduction
theory = motivation
begins with a
physiological need
that elicits a drive
toward behavior that
will satisfy the
original need; once
that need is met, a
statetoof balance
What needs
is
humans (homeostasis)
have
restored, and
both biological
and
motivation
psychological?
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Biological: Optimal-arousal
Optimal-arousal
theory =
Organisms are
motivated to
achieve and
maintain an optimal
level of arousal

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Psychological: Incentive
Incentive theory = motivation
results from external stimuli that
pull an organism in certain
directions.
Opposite of drive-reduction theories,
which say internal factors push people
in certain
directions
Hunger
pushes us to
eat

Sight of apple
pie pulls us
toward
continued
eating

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Why might paying students to

get good grades be a good
idea?
Paying
middle-school students $2 daily
Q1

for each goal met (increasing grades,

following rules, attendance) produced
higher reading test scores (Fryer, 2010)
Stay tuned for how using an extrinsic
reward (pay for goal achievement)
may create problems.

2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Psychological: Cognitive
Cognitive theories: motivation is
affected by:
Attributions = the way we think
about our Do
own
others
actions
youand
attribute
your success
to your
hard work or to luck? What difference
might this attribution make to your
motivation?

Expectancies = what we think will

Does your expectation of success
happen
affect your motivation?

2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Biopsychosocial Theories
Hierarchy of needs = Maslows view that
basic human motives form a hierarchy; the
lower motives (such as physiological and
safety needs) must be met before advancing
to higher needs (such as belonging and selfactualization)

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MOTIVATION AND
BEHAVIOR
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Hunger and Eating: Biology

Stomach: receptors in stomach and intestines
detect level of nutrients; pressure receptors in
wall of stomach signal feelings of emptiness or
satiety (fullness); chemical signals also play a role
Biochemistry: neurotransmitters, hormones,
enzymes and other chemicals affect hunger and
satiety
Brain: hypothalamus regulates eating, drinking
and body temp; lateral hypothalamus stimulates
eating while ventromedial hypothalamus signals
satiety but, just like other behaviors, hunger
and eating are governed by numerous neural
circuits
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Hunger and Eating:

Psychology
Q
2

How can just looking at

pictures of high-fat foods
makelooking
you feel at
hungry?
Simply
high-fat

foods can
stimulate parts of the brain in charge
of appetite, thus increasing feelings
of cravings for sweet and salty foods
(Luo et al., 2013)

Cultural influence when, what,

where and why we eat is culturally
conditioned
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Eating Disorders
Eating disorders have both
genetic/biological causes and
psychological causes
Obesity = having a body mass
index (BMI) of 30 or above,
based on height and weight
Binge-eating disorder = an
eating disorder characterized by
recurrent episodes of consuming
large amounts
of food in a discrete period of
time, while feeling a lack of
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What
environmenta
l factors
might
encourage
obesity and
binge-eating?

Eating Disorders
Anorexia nervosa =
an eating disorder
characterized by severe
loss of weight resulting
from self-imposed
starvation and obsessive
fear of obesity
Distorted body image:
even emaciated body is
seen as fat
Extreme malnutrition
leads to bone fractures,
loss of menstruation, loss
of brain tissue

Bulimia nervosa = an
eating disorder
characterized by
recurrent episodes of
consuming large
quantities of food
(bingeing), followed by
purging: self-induced
vomiting, extreme
exercise, laxative use,
and other medications

Vomiting damages teeth,

throat, stomach; leads to
digestive disorders and
heart problems
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Q3

Why is motivation a better predictor

of math success in children than IQ?

Need for achievement (nAch) or

Achievement motivation = the desire to
excel, especially in competition with others
(Henry Murray)
Prefer moderately difficult tasks not too easy
Motivation for
(boring!) and not too hard (risk failure!)
academic
Competitive
success, plus
Prefer clear goals and feedback
study skills, are
Regulate their efforts
better predictors
Persistent toward goal
of long-term math
achievement than
Accomplish more in school and work
IQ (Murayama et al.,
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2012)

Sexuality
Sexual response cycle = Masters
and Johnsons description of the fourstage bodily response to sexual
arousal, which consists of
excitement, plateau, orgasm, and
resolution

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Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation = a primary
erotic attraction toward members of
the same sex (homosexual, gay,
lesbian), both sexes (bisexual), or the
other sex (heterosexual)
Genetics and biology play the
dominant role in determining sexual
orientation
Sexual prejudice = a negative
attitude toward an individual
because of his or her sexual
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Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic

Motivation
Extrinsic motivation = motivation
based on external rewards or threat
of punishment
Intrinsic motivation = motivation
resulting from internal, personal
satisfaction from a task or activity
Do you study for the grade or
for love of learning?
Did you parents pay you for
grades?
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 When given an extrinsic reward

(money, praise) for an activity that
should be intrinsically motivating
(helping, visiting a park, watching
TV), enjoyment, interest, and
likelihood of continuing the activity
DECREASE
(Hennessey & Amabile, 1998; Kohn, 2000; Cini, Kruger, &
Ellis, 2013).

Extrinsic rewards should inform

about superior performance and be
given with no strings attached
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COMPONENTS AND
THEORIES OF EMOTION
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Emotions
Emotion = a complex pattern of
feelings that includes arousal (heart
pounding), cognitions (thoughts,
values, and expectations), and
expressive behaviors (smiles, frowns)
Emotions have three components:
1. Biological
2. Cognitive
3. Behavioral
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Biological (arousal)
Component
What happens in your body when
you get a sudden surprise?
Changes in heart rate, perspiration,
breathing are controlled by brain and
ANS
Limbic system, especially amygdala
Thalamus sends signal to cortex for
processing AND to amygdala for
immediate response
Autonomic nervous system prepares for
(and
recovers from) fight or flight
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Cognitive (Thinking)
Component
What you experience as pleasurable
may be boring or aversive to another
Self-report measures (surveys,
interviews) measure what people think
about their emotions
But sometimes people are unwilling or
unable to accurately report emotions
The other two components of emotions
(biological and behavioral) are used in
research to supplement cognitive
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Behavioral (Expressive)
Component
Facial expressions are an important
form of emotional communication
When verbal message and nonverbal
message dont match, we believe the
nonverbal message
Which one is
the real smile
and which
one is the
Duchenne
smile?

2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Three Major Theories of

Emotion
James-Lange = the subjective
experience of emotion results from
physiological changes rather than
being its cause (I feel sad because
Im crying)
Cannon-Bard = emotions and
physiological changes occur
simultaneously (Im crying and feel
sad at the same time)
Schachter and Singers twofactor theory = emotion depends
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Comparing 3 Theories of
Emotion

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Q4

How can simply smiling

reduce stress?

Facial-feedback hypothesis =
movements of the facial muscles
produce and/or intensify our
subjective experience of emotion
Smiling while holding hand in ice
water produced lower heart rates

2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Evolution, Culture, and

Emotion
Universal emotions like happiness,
surprise, sadness, anger, fear, and
disgust appear in all cultures
Q
5

Why do emotional expressions of

Olympic athletes appear the same
across all cultures?

In both US and S. Korea, participants

correctly rated expressions as
triumph and pride
Each culture has its own display rules
governing how, when and where
emotions are expressed
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The Polygraph as Lie

Detector
Polygraph = the instrument that
measures sympathetic arousal (heart
rate, respiration, blood pressure, and
skin conductivity) to detect
emotional arousal, which in turn
supposedly reflects lying versus
truthfulness
Based on theory that when people lie
they feel guilty and anxious
Polygraph error rates between 25
and 75%
2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.