CHANDIGARH UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD THEORY

ELT-305
Academic Session July-Dec 2016
Semester V
B.E- EE

Presented by :
NEHA
Assistant Professor

What are Electromagnetic Fields?

Electromagnetic is the study of charges (at rest and at motion).

The subject Electromagnetic may be divided into 3 branches:
Electrostatics: Charges are at rest (No time variation).
Magneto-static: Charges are in steady-motion (no time
variation).
Electrodynamics: Charges are in time varying motion (give
rise to waves that propagate and carry energy and information)

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Equation for Continuity for

Time Varying Fields
Electric charges may not be created or destroyed (the principle
of conservation of charge).
Consider an arbitrary volume V bounded by surface S. A net
charge Q exists within this region. If a net current I flows
across the surface out of this region, the charge in the volume
must decrease at a rate that equals the current:
I

J dS

Apply Divergence theorem

dQ
d

dt
dt

J
dv

V
V t dv

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dv

Partial derivative
because
may be
a function of both
time and space
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Equation for Continuity for

Time Varying Fields
This equation must hold regardless of the choice of V,
therefore the integrands must be equal:
J

V
t

( A / m3 )

the equation of
continuity

For steady currents

Kirchhoffs current law

J 0

follows from this

that is, steady electric currents are divergences or solenoidal.

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Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

James Clerk Maxwell [1831-1879] took a set of known
experimental laws (Faraday's Law, Ampere's Law) and unified
them into a symmetric coherent set of Equations known as
Maxwell's Equations.
He also proved that the speed of propagation of electromagnetic
(EM) waves was the same as the speed of light.
Maxwell's Equations are a set of 4 complicated equations that
describe the world of electromagnetics.
These equations describe how electric and magnetic fields
propagate, interact, and how they are influenced by objects.

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Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Divergence
The Divergence Operator( )
Divergence at a point (x,y,z) is the measure of the vector flow
out of a surface surrounding that point. :

Positive
Divergence
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Negative
Divergence
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Zero
Divergence
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 Divergence is a specific measure of how fast the vector field is

changing in the x, y, and z directions. if a vector function a is
given by:

The symbol
is the partial derivative symbol, which means rate
of change with respect to x.
Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Electric Flux Density (D)

The Electric Flux Density (D) is related to the Electric Field (E) by:
D= E
is the permittivity of the medium (material) where we are
measuring the fields.
The Electric Field (E) is equal to the force per unit charge (at a
distance R from a charge of value q1.
Then the Electric Flux Density is:

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 The Electric Flux Density is very similar to the Electric Field,

but does not depend on the material in which we are
measuring (that is, it does not depend on the permittivity ).
The D field is a vector field, which means that at every point
in space it has a magnitude and direction.
The Electric Flux Density has units of Coulombs per meter
squared [C/m^2].
Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Electric Volume Charge

Density ( )

The greek symbol rho () typically denotes electric charge, and

the subscript V indicates it is the volume charge density.
Charge is measured in Coulombs [C], and volume is in meters
per cube [m^3], therefore, the units of the electric charge density
is [C/m^3].
Since electric charge can be negative or positive, the charge
density can be negative, positive or zero.

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Simple Charge Density Example

Suppose we have +5 [C] of electric charge uniformly (evenly)
spread within a sphere of radius 2 meters. What is the electric
volume charge density in the sphere?
The solution is simple:

The electric charge is known as a source in Maxwell's Equations,

as it gives rise to Electric and Magnetic Fields.
Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Magnetic Flux Density (B)

The Magnetic Flux Density (B) is related to the Magnetic Field

(H) by:
B = H
is the permeability of the medium (material) where we are
measuring the fields.
The permeability of a vacuum is denoted by 0, and is equal to:
The magnetic flux density is measured in Webers per square meter
[Wb/m^2], which is equivalent to Teslas [T].
The B field is a vector field, which means it has a magnitude and
direction at each point in space.

Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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The Electric Field (E)

The Electric Field has units (dimensions) of Newtons/Coulomb

[N/C], which is equivalent to Volts/meter [V/m].

The Magnetic Field (H)

The units for the Magnetic Field are Amps/meter [A/m].

Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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The Partial Derivative of B (

It is simply the negative of the rate of change of the Magnetic

Flux Density, B field with respect to time.
A magnetic flux density B, which is a vector field and a
function of (x,y,z,t).

The B field is measured in Webers/meter^2 [Wb/m^2]

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The Partial Derivative of B (

The rate of change of the B field in time is:

The derivative means "per second" [1/s], then the units of

(
)are Webers/meter-squared-seconds [Wb/m^2-s].
Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Displacement Current Density - The Partial

Derivative of D

It is simply the time rate of change of the Electric Flux

Density. That is, this quantity is a measure of how quickly the
D field changes if we observe it as a function of time.
This term is known as the Displacement Current Density. It
symbolizes the type of electric current that flows through a
capacitor.
An electric flux density D, which is a vector field and a
function of (x,y,z,t) (3-spatial variables and time).

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Displacement Current Density - The Partial

Derivative of D

The partial derivative of D with respect to time is the rate of

change of the D field in time

The D field is measured in Coulombs/meter^2 [WCm^2] and

the derivative means "per second" [1/s], then the units of D are
Coulombs/meter-squared-seconds [C/m^2-s].

Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Electric Current Density (J)

The Electric Current Density is the flow of current over a cross
section area (m^2) and is denoted by the vector symbol (J)

The electric current density can be related to the Electric Field by

This is famous - Ohm's Law.
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Introduction to Maxwell's Equations

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Maxwell's Equations-First Equation

It states that the total electric flux E passing through a closed
hypothetical surface is equal to 1/0 times the net charge enclosed by
the surface
Gauss' Law is the first of Maxwell's Equations which dictates how
the Electric Field behaves around electric charges.

Gauss' Law in point form or differential form.

It means if there exists electric charge somewhere in the space, then
the divergence of D at that point is nonzero, otherwise it is equal to
zero.
Where
is Del operator.
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Maxwell's Equations-First
Equation

Gauss' Law in integral form

Assume some arbitrary volume, V ,which has a boundary, S.
Then integrating the differential form of Gauss Law over the
volume V gives Gauss' Law in integral form:

Where Qenc is the amount of charge inside a volume V.

Therefore to determine the Electric Flux leaving the region V,
we only need to know how much electric charge is within the
volume.
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Maxwell's Equations-Second
Equation
Gauss' Law for Magnetism
Gauss' Law for Magnetism is the Second Maxwell's Equations
which states that the total magnetic flux m emerging through a
closed surface is zero.
But the divergence of the Electric Flux Density D is equal to the
volume electric charge density.

Why isn't the divergence of B equal to the

magnetic charge density?
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Maxwell's Equations-Second
Equation

It means every magnetic object is a magnetic dipole, with a

north and south pole. No matter how many times you break
the magnetic in half, it will just form more magnetic dipoles.
Magnetic Monopoles do not exist.
The Divergence of the B or H Fields is always zero through
any volume.

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Maxwell's Equations-Second
Equation
Gauss' Law of magnetism in integral form
Assume some arbitrary volume, V ,which has a boundary, S.
Then integrating the differential form of Gauss Law of
magnetism over the volume V gives Gauss' Law of magnetism
in integral form:

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Maxwell's Equations-Third Equation

Faraday's Law of Induction
Faraday's Law is given by
It states that, whenever magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes
then induced electromotive force (EMF) is set up in the circuit.
This induced EMF lasts so long as the change in magnetic flux
continues.
Or
The magnitude of induced EMF is equal to the rate of change of
magnetic flux linked with the circuit.
induced EMF= dm/dt
Wherem=B.dS
--------(1)
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Maxwell's Equations-Third Equation

Here negative sign is because of Lenzs law which states that
the induced emf set up a current in such a direction that the
magnetic effect produced by it opposes the cause producing it.
Also definition of emf states that emf is the closed line integral
of the non-conservative electric field generated by the battery.
EMF=E.dL ----------(2)
Comparing equations (1) and (2), we get
E.dL=sd/dtB.dS ----3)
Equation (3) is the integral form of Maxwells third Equation
or Faradays law of electromagnetic induction.

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Maxwell's Equations-Third Equation

Apply Stokes theorem to L.H.S. of equations (3) to change
line integral to surface integral.
That is
E.dL=( x E).dS
By substituting above equation in equation(3), we get
s ( x E).dS = - d/d t(B.dS)
As two surface integral are equal only when their integrands
are equal.
Thus
x E= dB/ dt
(4)
Equation (4) is the Differential form of Maxwells third
equation.
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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

Ampere's Law-relates a electric current flowing and a magnetic

field wrapping around it.
Explanation: Suppose we have a conductor (wire) carrying a
current, I. Then this current produces a Magnetic field which
circles the wire.
LHS means: If we take any imaginary path that encircles the
wire, and we add up the Magnetic Field at each point along that
path, then it will numerically equal the amount of current that is
encircled by this path. (which is why we write I enc for encircled or
enclosed current).
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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation
Example:

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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

Manipulating the Math for Ampere's Law

Applying stokes theorem on amperes law

Stokes' Theorem has been used to change a line integral around

a closed loop into the curl of the same field through the surface
enclosed by the loop (S).
The total current ( ) can also be written as the surface integral
of the Current Density(J).

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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation
Hence, we can substitute them together and get a new form for
Ampere's Law:

So now we have a new form of Ampere's Law: the curl of the

magnetic field is equal to the Electric current density.
There is a problem with this law, but it wasn't until the 1860s
that James Clerk Maxwell figured out the problem, and unified
Electromagnetics with Maxwell's Equations.

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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

Displacement Current Density

We know that the divergence of the curl of any vector field is
always zero:

So let's take the divergence of Ampere's Law

.(a)
If the divergence of J is always zero, this means that the electric
current flowing into any region is always equal to the electric
current flowing out of the region (no divergence).
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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

This seems somewhat reasonable, as electric current in circuits flows

in a loop. But let's look what happens if we put a capacitor in the
circuit:

Now, we know from electric circuit theory that if the voltage is not
constant (for example, any periodic wave, such as the 60 Hz voltage
that comes out of your power outlets) then current will flow through
the capacitor. That is, we have I not equal to zero.
However, a capacitor is basically two parallel conductive plates
separated by air. Hence, there is no conductive path for the current to
flow through. This means that no electric current can flow through the
air of the capacitor.
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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

To show it more clearly, let's take a volume that goes through

the capacitor, and see if the divergence of J is zero:

In Figure, an imaginary volume in red has drawn, and we want

to check if the divergence of the current density is zero. The
volume chosen, has one end (labeled side 1) where the current
enters the volume via the black wire. The other end of our
volume (labeled side 2) splits the capacitor in half.
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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

We know that the current flows in the loop. So current enters

through Side 1 of red volume. However, there is no electric
current that exits side 2. No current flows within the air of the
capacitor. This means that current enters the volume, but nothing
leaves it - so the divergence of J is not zero. We have just
violated Equation [a], which means the theory does not hold.
Maxwell
knew
that
the
Electric
Field
(and
Electric Flux Density (D) was changing within the capacitor. And
he knew that a time-varying magnetic field gave rise to a
solenoidal Electric Field (i.e. this is Farday's Law - the curl of E
equals the time derivative of B). So, why is not that a time
varying D field would give rise to a solenoidal H field (i.e. gives
rise to the curl of H). And so Maxwell called this term the
displacement current density:
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Maxwell's Equations-Fourth
Equation

This term would "fix" the circuit problem and would make Farday's
Law and Ampere's Law more symmetric. So, if we add the
displacement current to Ampere's Law , then we have the final form
of Ampere's Law:

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Summary
Differential From

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Assignment-2
Q1)

Explain amperes work law with its

applications.
Q2) State and Explain Amperes force law with
diagram.
Q3)
Why there was need to modify Amperes
circuital Law?
Q4)
State and explain Maxwells equations in
integral and differential form for static and time
varying fields.

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REFERENCES
1. Kraus John D. Electromagnetics, McGraw-Hill Publishers.
2. http://www.maxwells-equations.com
3. Antenna and wave propagation by K.D.Prasad
4. https://www.physics.wisc.edu/undergrads/courses/.../HW12
Solutions.pdf

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Thank You!!!

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