Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Water
Purpose/Peranan For hydration and workability
washing/membasuh curing/mengawet
Condition/Syarat
Clean no (acid, alkali, sulfate, clay, sugar dan chloride)
Jika kuatir bandingkan masa memejal dan kekuatan mampatan
dengan konkrit air suling/ air paip
Mixing Water
fit for drinking, unless high concentration of sodium and pottasium
contain dissolve solid less than 1000ppm
water with pH 6.0-8.0, does not taste saline or brakish (contain
chlorides and sulfates) considered suitable
chloride content < 500ppm, or SO3 < 1000ppm, water is harmless
Sea water (total salinity 3.5%) can be considered
Leads to higher early strength and lower long term strength
loss of strength not more than 15%
Sea water tend to cause persistent dampness and efflorescence
increase risk of corrosion of reinforcement
Curing Water
water suitable for mixing suitable for curing. Even water slightly
inferior in quality, is acceptable for curing
Iron and organic matter may cause staining
Water should free from substances that attack concrete (CO2)
e.g. CO2 dissolve Ca(OH)2
Effect of water/cement ratio
w/c ratio - ratio between weight of water and cement in a concrete mix
For proper hydration w/c should be about 0.35
Typical w/c ratio in practice 0.55-0.65. When water increased without
increase in cement, the void content increases and the concrete
strength drops
Cpressive strength commonly estimated from the water-cement ratio
The relationship w/c ratio to compressive strength is called Abrams
law (1918)
Benefits of Curing
Concrete ripens and grows
stronger with age and curing
Curing controls moisture and
temperature and its effects on
hydration
Strength of properly cured
concrete
at 1 day 10-15% of 28-day
strength.
at 7 days 50-60% of 28-day
strength
Moist cured specimens continue to
gain strength even after several
years
Use of steam for early curing
dramatically builds up the strength
Properties of Engineering
Materials
Materials should perform
satisfactorily during service
for highway bridge adequate
strength, rough surface, and
sufficient rigidity
water-retaining structure would be
built with a material that is
impermeable, crack-free, strong,
and does not react with water
a road surface needs such
materials that show little movement
under the impact of loads, are water
resistant, and are easy to repair
The common properties of
engineering materials are
Physical properties
Mechanical properties
Chemical properties
FRESH CONCRETE
Quality Concrete should
Fresh state good workability
Hardened state strong and durable
Strength and durability influenced by voids and
pores exists due to
incomplete vibration
too much water
Workability
Definition
Property of the concrete which determines its
ability to be placed, compacted and finished (the
greatest emphasis
should be placed on compaction)
The amount of work needed to produce full
compaction
thereby relating it to the placing rather than handling
process
(Can be associate with cohesion, mobility, internal
friction, pump and finishing)
High workability: easy to place, compact and work
With
Factor that influence workability
Water/cement ratio,
shape, texture, grading and types of aggregate
cement content and types,
temperature and time
Concrete should be fully compacted 1% fresh
concrete void reduce 3-5% hardened concrete
Surface Area
For a fixed cement, water and aggregate content,
workability is influenced by surface area of the
aggregate
Workability can be improved by using large,
rounded shape aggregate.
Grading
More fine aggregate reduce
workability (shrinkage, cost)
Coarse aggregate improve
workability and strength of
concrete (jika terlalu banyak
konkrit kesat/ harsh)
Shape and Texture
Workability is influenced more
by the shape rather than texture
of the aggregate
Aggregate that is round in
shape and smooth surface
enhance concrete workability
(Batu berbentuk bulat (sfera) dan
permukaan licin menghasil konkrit
berkebolehkerjaan tinggi dan
sebaliknya.)
Fineness of cement
Workability reduce with the
fineness of cement.
Fine cement increase cohesion in
the mix
Rate of reduction of workability
Influenced by richness of mix,
cement type, concrete
temperature, surrounding
temperature and workability
WORKABILITY TEST
Slump Test
BS 1881: Part 102:1983, ASTM C14390a
Widely used on site, easier to use,
and
suitable to determine uniformity of mix
Procedure:
Place the cone on flat surface
Load 3 layers of concrete, layer by
layer
Each layer tamped/rodded 25 X
Raise the cone slowly
Ukur runtuhan (slump) mm
Types of slump
True Slump:
Concrete suitable for structural use
slump 15 150 mm
ketuk sedikit selepas bacaan melihat
kestabilan konkrit
Shear or Collapse
Concrete not suitable for structural
use
repeat
Effectiveness of Slump Test
Suitable to determine changes in
workability
Difficult to work on dry concrete
Suitable to determine uniformity of
material from time to time esp on site
Vebe(s)
> 20
20-2
12-6
6-3
3-0
Compacting Factor
0.65-0.75
0.75-0.85
0.85-0.90
0.90-0.93
> 0.93
Segregation
Segregation is the tendency for separation between large and
fine particles of fresh concrete.
Rock pockets, sand streaks, crazing, and surface scaling are
usually related to segregation
Two modes of segregation
Segregation of coarse agg. from mortar - pada bancuhan
kering, maka tambah sedikit air
Segregation of render from mix - sering berlaku pada konkrit
terlalu basah
Factor that cause Segregation
Main factor
Differences in particle size, luas tentu permukaan, mortar
content, differences of aggregate density
Factor that reduce stability
Very wet mix or deficient in finer particles
Not enough binder
Moving the concrete over a long distances
ketumpatan batu baur kasar yang jauh berbeza drp pasir
Too much superplasticizer
Reduction of Segregation
Fresh concrete must be drop vertically not at an angle
Avoid over vibration
Avoid transporting concrete over a long distance
elak menyerak konkrit menggunakan penggetar
Use tube if placing concrete from higher position
Bleeding
A concrete mix that does not possess proper consistency is
unable to hold the mix water, which slowly get displaced and
then rises to the top of the form. The water will eventually be
lost, either through
evaporation or by leakage through the joints and sides of the
forms.
This layer is weak, telap/absorb and less durable
Some bleeding might trapped under the aggregate or
reinforcement. This will affect the bonding
Reduction of Bleeding
Decrease in water cement ratio
Rich mixes, mixes with more cement
Use air entrainment
Use fine cement/ or PFA
Avoid over vibration, and
Use lower w/c ratio for later batch of concrete
Wet Concrete
Segregation
Separation of the components of fresh concrete
Bleeding
Appearance of water on the surface
Laitance
Tendency of water rising in the internal channels within the
concrete
ONSITE CONCRETE
PREPARATION
Do necessary preparation so that no disturbance to progress of
work
Access to and from site - lorry
No contamination on material store
Storage area, what material to store
Avoid duplication
PRODUCTION STEP
Step to follow
batching
mixing
transporting
placing
compacting, and
curing
Batching
Batching is the process of collecting, storing and
proportioning the constituents of concrete prior to mixing
Materials are proportion according to specification.
Measurement can be in a form of weight . For small
quantity measurement by volume can be considered.
Mixing
Purpose is to coat the surface of all the aggregate
particles with cement paste, and to blend all the
ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass
Mixing time 1- 3 min, depend on type and size of,
workability and quantity of mix
Avoid overloaded. Clean mixer after used
Concrete mixing
The mixing operation consists essentially of rotation or
stirring,
the objective being to coat the surface of all aggregate
particles with cement paste, and to blend all the
ingredients of concrete into a uniform mass
Three methods of concrete mix Nominal mix
Prescribed mix
Design mix
Concrete mixing 1
Nominal mix
Quantity of cement, sand and aggregate determined
according to weight or volume.
1:2:4 means 1 cement, 2 sand and 4 coarse aggregate
Concrete mixing 2
Prescribed mix
Quantity of concrete materials is determined
to Table 5, BS 5328.
Suitable for concrete grade 25 and below
Prescribed mix
Quantity of concrete materials is determined according to Table 5, BS
5328.
Suitable for concrete grade 25 and below
Concrete mixing 3
Design mix
Quantity of concrete material are calculated following example in
Design of Normal Concrete Mixes - British Research Establishment
Followed by trial mix. Adjust whatever necessary
Designed Mix (DOE)
Procedure as specified in Table 1
Required some specified information
Characteristic strength from structural engineer
Workability and the size of aggregate, based on the nature of
application
Durability, based on the condition of the application
Tables and figures are based on UK data
Design for 1 m3 concrete
Concrete mixing 4
Ready-Mixed Concrete
1. Central-mixed concrete
2. Shrink-mixed Concrete is partially mixed .and completed in a
mixer truck
3. Truck-mixed concrete is mixed completely in a mixer truck
Advantage/Disadvantage
Advantage
Supplier specialised in concrete production
Concrete more consistent
Save site space
Cost control easier
Quality control transfer to supplier
Disadvantage
Site road and job access have to be constructed
Deliveries may be late due to traffic, breakdown
Volume requirement ?
Cancellations well in advance
Handling
There are many methods of transporting concrete from mixer
to site
Bucket and wheelbarrow
Dumper and monorail
Crane and skip
Chutes/Conveyor/pelongsor,
pump
Bucket and Wheelbarrow
- Small quantity
- Mixer should be as close as possible to working area
-Long distance can cause segregation
Crane and Skip
-To transport concrete in vertical direction
-Can easily reached the work area
-Also used to transport reinforcement and formwork
Chutes/Conveyor & Pump
Chutes/Conveyor/Pelongsor
Suitable method to transport concrete to work below ground
level (basement)
Pump
For large volume discharge fast, efficient and less wastage
Deliver more than 30m3/hour
Can deliver up to 300m-horizontal, 100m vertical
Discharged
Ensure formwork is clean, paint inside formwork with grease
Ensure formwork is strong (fresh concrete, tamping and
vibration)
Dont use vibrator to move concrete horizontally
Dont drop concrete higher than 1.5m
For large volume discharge, discharge layer by layer 450
600mm
Compaction
Concrete should be compacted immediately after placing to
expel air trapped inside, reduce permeability and ensure
bonding between reinforcement and concrete
Time taken to vibrate concrete influence compaction and
strength
Over vibration segregation and bleeding
Under vibration concrete weak
Revibration at 1 or 2 hours after placing increases the
compressive strength of concrete up to 15%. Enhance bond
between concrete and reinforcement and relief of plastic
shrinkage stresses around the large aggregate particles
Types of vibrator
Internal Vibrator
Poker vibrator (dia. 25-300mm), immerse vertically and moved
from place to place every 0.5 - 1m for 5s to 2 min.
Completion of compaction can be judged by the appearance of
the surface of the concrete, which should neither honeycombed
nor contain an excess of mortar
Poker is withdrawal gradually of about 80mm/s.
For second layer placing, rod is immersed to about 100mm
inside the old layer to get a uniform mix.
External vibrator
Rigidly clamped to the formwork which rests on an elastic
support, so that both the form and the concrete vibrated. Used for
precast or thin in-situ section or congested with reinforcement.
Suitable for steel formwork
Surface vibrator
Suitable for spread concrete, thickness not more than 150mm
CURING
The placing of concrete must be followed by curing
Curing - procedure that maintains proper moisture and
temperature to ensure continuous hydration
90% of cement will hydrate in about 90 days
If we value 90-day strength as 100, at 28 days-80%; at 14
days-70%; at 7 days-45% and at 3 days-30%
The strength can only continue if the concrete is kept moist
and at a favorable temperature, especially during first few
days after placing
Evaporation will be higher in low humidity, in high winds, or
if temperature of the concrete is very high
Cold and frost are not good for newly formed concrete neither are
excessive heat or sudden changes in temperature Good cured
concrete
Improved quality and performance
Decreased Permeability and increased Durability
Good resistance to abrasion
Develop strong and firm surface
Less or no plastic shrinkage
Methods of Curing
Maintain presence of water
Water Spraying/Ponding
Must be carried out thoroughly. A continuous fog spraying or
sprinkling of water is required
Ponding is accomplished by building earth or sand dikes around
the perimeter of the concrete slab to retain a pond of water within
the enclosed area
The water needs to be at a temperature close to that of the
concrete surface
Wet Covering
Surfaces can be effectively cured by using hessian or other
absorbent materials, providing they can be kept continually
wet and are uniformly positioned
Waterproof Paper
Can also be used on unobstructed horizontal surface
Polythene Sheeting
Can be used similar to waterproof paper
White sheeting will reflect the suns rays and will be useful
in warm weather
Polythene sheeting can cause discoloration or mottling of
the hardened concrete
Prevent loss of mixing water
Spray-on-membranes
Liquid membrane-forming materials containing waxes,
resins, etc. are applied by spraying, brushing or rolling on
horizontal or vertical surfaces to retain moisture or retard
evaporation
The material should be sprayed evenly as soon as the free
water has evaporated
Curing compounds may prevent a bond between the
hardened concrete and any screed or wet concrete
applied later
Accelerate Hydration
Use of Heat
Curing time can be reduced in a number of different ways,
including space heating, electrical heating and steam curing
Space heating
area ready for concrete can be temporary enclosed by the
use of screens, tarpaulins or plastic sheeting.
This enables oil or electric space heaters or fires to provide
and maintain in this limited area a temperature which will
keep the concrete at least above 5oC
Electrical curing
Replacing braziers as a form of accelerated curing, primarily in
precast factories, to assist in the reduction in the number of
moulds
Low voltage electricity is used and by embedding wire heater
elements between plywood laminations, thermal efficiency is
high and the method clean and easy to use
Steam curing
Favourable method of curing for precast and concrete
masonry block
Structural members are covered with tarpaulins and pipes fed
underneath conveying moist hot steam
Curing in Hot Weather
In hot weather, exposed concrete must be kept cool,
both during mixing and throughout the curing period
Problem in hot weather concreting due to the faster
rate of hydration and increased rate of evaporation
(concrete temperature, relative humidity, wind velocity,
and air temperature)
When evaporation is not controlled, concrete are prone
to thermal cracking
Lowering the temperature of coarse agg. decrease the
concrete temperature
The common methods for cooling concrete in hot weather
application are:
Cooling the mixing water with chipped ice
Shading the aggregate storage and water tank
Painting the truck mixers white
Avoidance of overmixing
Keeping the humidity high and air temperature low with fog
sprays around the area where concrete is placed
Use retarder in the mix
Curing Period
Curing period cannot be prescribed in a simple way
but,
If the temperature is above 10oC, ACI 308-92 lays down a
minimum of
3 days : RHPC (type III)
7 days : OPC (type I)
14 days : LHPC (type IV)
BS 8110:Part 1:1985 lays down the normal curing periods for
different cements and exposure
Conditions
FORMWORK
To support fresh concrete and to form a shapeand size of
designated elements
Can be made from timber, steel, grp and polystyrene
Formwork should be firm and strong, not bending and can
absorb vibration due to compaction activity etc.
Easy to install and open and maintain
Paint with grease to prevent sticking to Concrete
Premature Removal of Forms
Removal of forms (including shoring) before the concrete
has reached its proper strength may result in compression
and tension stresses, causing cracking, deflection, and
possible collapse
Striking formwork
Formwork at soffit of beam and slab should be open later than
on the side
Time to strike formwork depend on types and strength of
concrete, weather, curing types and etc. Refer to BS 8110 Part
1: 1985,Table 6.6
Joints in concrete
Joints in concrete elements are provided to accomplish
Minimize undesirable cracking
Accommodate differential movement of adjacent elements
Provide a natural plane of weakness
Prevent bonding of adjacent elements
Workforce have to go home
Three main types of joints
Construction joints
Water-tight joints
Movement or controlled joints
Construction Joints
(isolation or expansion joints)
At construction joints fresh concrete is placed against
concrete that has already hardened to provide structural
continuity across the joint
The joint placed at the end of days placement or at the
beginning of the next days concreting
Sealing of construction joints is necessary to keep
pebbles, debris, water away and to arrest the water from
draining through the joint into the subgrade or soil
Cold Joints
Cold joints are places of discontinuity within a member
where concrete may not tightly bond to itself (old and new
layer)
To achieve proper bond and watertightness, the surface of
hardened concrete must be free of dirt, debris, and laitance
Isolation or Expansion joints - to separate a slab from
other part of a structure, such as beam and columns to
prevent bonding and permit horizontal and vertical
movement
Also for the convenience and necessity of the construction
process
Joints may be created to separate walls and columns
vertical elements-from the floor to allow free movement
Absolute Volume
The absolute volume of a quantity of a material is the sum of
the volumes of its particles.
The DOE Method, assumes that the volume of fully compacted
freshly mixed concrete equals the sum of absolute volumes of its
constituent materials.
Assumptions
It is assumed that the workability of a concrete mix depends
primarily on:
The Free Water Content
The Fine Aggregate Type and, to a lesser degree, the Coarse
Aggregate Type
The Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregate
Free Water Content
The water, which is available to react with the cement, is
termed the free water content of the concrete and influences
the strength, durability and workability of the concrete
critically.
The free water content is generally determined by a
compromise between workability requirements and strength and
durability needs.
It is the sum of
the mix water
the surface water of the aggregates
less
the water absorbed by the aggregate in the time between the
mixing and the setting of the concrete.
Total Water Content
Consists of the water absorbed by the aggregate to bring it to a
saturated surface-dry condition, and
The free water available for the hydration of the cement, and
For the workability of the fresh concrete
Concrete Strength
It is assumed that the strength of a concrete mix depends on:
The Free water/Cement Ratio;
The Coarse Aggregate Type;
The Cement Properties.
Characteristic Strength
Characteristic strength strictly means the concrete strength
(nominal strength), below which on average a certain proportion
of test results will fall. This proportion is termed the "proportion
of
defectives".
Many Standards, for example BS8110, use characteristic
strengths as a basis for concrete design.
Cement Pores
Gel pores
pores exist in the gel itself
28% of the cement
very fine 2nm
no mobility of water
Capilary pores
exist due to unhydrated compound during hydration
pore size 1m gel
interconnected pores
about 40% volume of pores
depend on
water/cement
degree of hydration
Proportion of Defectives
Proportion of Defectives is defined in statistics as the
proportion of a set of test results, which will fail on average.
The CIB/FIP "International recommendations for the design
and construction of concrete structures, BS 5328:1985 and BS
8110:1985, all recommend that a proportion of defectives of 5
%
should be adopted for concrete strength test results.
Concrete Strength
Generally a concrete mix is required to provide a specified
strength.
The most common measure of concrete strength is the
compressive strength, determined in either a cube test or a
cylinder test.
Since the strength of a concrete specimen increases with
time, the concrete age at testing is significant.
It is also important to remember that the target strength of a
mix will only be attained in practice, if the concrete is properly
placed, well compacted and adequately cured.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
A concrete mix must provide adequate durability. However
concrete mixes are not normally tested for durability directly.
Instead concrete specifications frequently contain mix
requirements, which are designed to provide durability by
ensuring that the set concrete attains a minimum strength.
It allows to specify a Maximum Free water/Cement Ratio for
durability purposes.
Aggregates & Strength
Concrete strength is influenced by the coarse aggregate type
used in the mix
Generally uncrushed aggregates are smoother than crushed
aggregates and so concrete made with crushed aggregates
can achieve a given strength with a higher free water/cement
ratio than concrete made with uncrushed aggregates.
Aggregates & Workability
The type of aggregate influences the workability.
In comparison with concrete made with uncrushed coarse
aggregate, concrete containing crushed coarse aggregate will
generally have superior strength and inferior workability,
although the coarse aggregate has considerably less influence
on the workability than the fine aggregate.
Generally uncrushed aggregates are smoother than crushed
aggregates and so concrete made with uncrushed aggregates
needs less free water to achieve a given workability than
concrete made with crushed aggregates.
Since the fine aggregate has a greater influence on the
workability than the coarse aggregate, the DOE method
assumes that the influence of the fine aggregate type on the
required free water content for workability is twice that of the
coarse aggregate type.
Stage (III)
Determine Required Cement Content
Obtain the minimum cement content, which is required for
strength, by dividing the free water content obtained in
Stage (II) by the free water/cement ratio obtained in Stage (I).
Check the minimum cement content, which is required for
strength, against the maximum cement content, which is
permitted, and give a warning if the former exceeds the latter.
Check the minimum cement content, which is required for
strength, against the minimum cement content, which is
allowable for durability, and adopt whichever is greater to be
the cement content in the mix.
Divide the free water content by the cement content used in
the mix to obtain a modified free water/cement ratio.
Stage (IV)
Determine Total Aggregate Content
Obtain a value for the overall aggregate density.
Obtain the fractional volume of the aggregate by
subtracting the proportional volumes of the free water and
the cement from a unit volume.
Calculate the total aggregate content by dividing the
volume of the aggregate by the aggregate density.
Stage (V)
Determine Fine Aggregate Content
Either use a specified value of the percentage of fine
aggregate, or obtain the percentage of fine aggregate, which
will provide the desired workability for concrete made with the
given grading of fine aggregate, maximum size of coarse
aggregate and the free water/cement ratio obtained in Stage
(III).
Calculate the fine and coarse aggregate contents from the
total aggregate content obtained in Stage (IV) and the
percentage of fine aggregate.
BINGHAM MODEL
Concrete Fresh Properties
Main Properties In Relation to Handling, Placing &
Compacting
(1) FLUIDITY
It must be capable of being handled. Flowing into the
formwork & around any reinforcement e.g concrete for lightly
reinforced, shallow floor slab need NOT be as fluid as that for
a narrow, heavily reinforced column.
(2) COMPACTABILITY
Removal of air entrapped during mixing & handling using
any compacting system
(3) STABILITY or COHESIVENESS
Stable in the homogeneous uniform mass i.e no
segregation.
WORKABILITY MEASUREMENTCont.
(2) SINGLE POINT TEST
Tests initiated prior to the understanding of concrete as
bingham material: Arbitrary tests for workability; some are still
in common use
All of these are single point tests
-Slump
-Compacting factor
-Vebe
-Flow table
-Hence none can truly represent the workability of
Concrete
-They measure the response of the concrete to specific but
arbitrary & different test conditions.
-Slump, vebe & flow table tests provide a measure of the
consistency
-Compacting factor test comes closest to measure
compactability of concrete
-Despite the limitations, single point tests particularly slump
test remains popular
FLOW TEST
Developed in Germany 1993
More widely used for concrete of high and very high
workability
Added superplasticizing admixtures
Flow table 700 x 700 mm
Free edges can rise to 40mm
Table top is moistened and a frustrum of a cone (concrete) lightly
tamped.
After 30 s, table top is lifted and drop 15 times with a cycle of 4s
(period 45 to 75 s)
measure concrete spread, 400 medium workability, 500 high
Two-point Test
Tattersall (1991), critized all the existing workability test
They measure only one parameter
The flow of fresh concrete should be described by Bingham
model
t = t0 + g or T = g + h.N
where T=t = shear stress at rate of shear
g = t0 = yield stress
h = = plastic viscosity
BINGHAM MODEL
The behaviour of fresh paste, mortar & concrete BINGHAM
model
Concrete flow hindered by interference & friction of the
particles; cement & aggregates in the mix Flow only starts as
applied shear stress reaches a yield value Ty i.e. inter particle
interference effect is sufficiently overcome
At higher stress, rate of shear varies approx. linear with shear
stress. Slope defines plastic viscosity, u
FLOWING CONCRETE
Pumpable and Flowable Concrete
Requirements for Pumpable Concrete
1: Liquid Phase WATER is the Carrier.
-The ONLY pumpable Constituent of Concrete Mix.
-Must be Sufficient to SATURATE Mix.
-Must NOT be oversaturated: Cohesive nature LOST.
2: Materials below 300 microns in size
(Cement, fine sand, stone dust, PFA etc)
-Control the LIQUID phase under PRESSURE by virtue of their
void size & surface area.
-Lack of which results in LACK of control over liquid phase &
SEGREGATION occurs.
-Excess Liquid over-controlled resulting in HIGH pipe
friction.
3: Sand: Size no 52 5 mm
-Provides SUPPORT to finer solids by producing VOIDS.
-Needs GOOD Grading.
-Particle size affects the behaviour of water phase:
Harsh angular not packing well & thus high Void.
Smooth rounded large individual voids.
Balanced & Well Graded; best for pumping concrete river
sand (Zone 2 to 3).
4: Coarse Fraction of Aggregates
-Provides SPACE for filler.
-Holds or Controls the Sand.
-Void Structures SHOULD be COMPATIBLE with volume of
sand and Cement.
-Grading is Important.
-SHAPE Balanced between rounded and angular (9 mm
grading portion can be manipulated add or remove.
LLP: CHARACTERISTICS
-Low/modest cement content.
-Sand may be coarse & concrete shows tendency to
bleed.
-Blockage will occur at zone of highest pressure gradient; at or
near pump.
-Reduction in line length/pipe offers little or NO improvement.
-Increase in SLUMP beyond 75 mm offers NO improvement,
in fact even WORSE.
ULP: CHARACTERISTICS
-Concrete contains HIGH fines.
-Ability to pump depend very much on line length. Thus pipe
length reduction OFFERS improvement.
-Increase in SLUMP improves PUMPABILITY.
Consider 2 identical concrete mixes using 2 different
sources of sand.
A. Material Dry wt/m3
Sand Grade
Cement
300 kg
Sand
750 kg 22 % passing 300 m.
Agg
1100 kg
B. Similar to A except only 5% of sand passing 300 m sieve.
A pumpable but B NOT; Why???
FILLER Content
A: 750 x 0.22 + 300 = 465 kg = 21.6% dry wt
Within limit, Hence PUMPABLE.
B: 750 x 0.05 + 300 = 338 kg = 15.7% dry wt
LLP, Hence NOT Pumpable.
SCC Concrete
Self-Consolidating Concrete
Self-Compacting Concrete
Flowable Concrete
SCC DEFINATION
Concrete mixture that can be placed purely by means
of its own weight, with little or no vibration.
SCC CONCRETE
SCC is a highly flowable, non-segregating concrete that can
spread into place, fill formwork and encapsulate even the most
congested reinforcement, all without any mechanical vibration.
ORIGIN OF SCC CONCRETE
In the early 1980s, Professor Hajime Okamura (University of
Tokyo, now Kochi Institute of Technology) advocated the use of
SCC to solve workmanship in Japan.
SCC Japan uses superplasticizer to make the concrete more
fluid and viscosity modifying agent to increase plasticity prevent
segregation.
Advantages of SCC Concrete
-No mechanical vibration - savings in placement costs.
-Improved and more uniform architectural surface finish.
-Ease of filling restricted sections and hard-to-reach areas.
-Improved bond and consolidation around reinforcement.
-Improved pumpability of the concrete.
-Labor savings.
-Shorter construction periods construction COST savings.
Rheological Properties of SCC Concrete
Rheology is the science of the deformation and flow of
materials.
Self Consolidation Concretes rheological properties are;
Filling ability
Passing ability (resistance to blocking)
Stability (segregation resistance)
CONCLUSIONS
The material cost for SCC concrete is about 10 to
15%
higher than conventional concrete.
BUT if other components of costs like the cost of
consolidation, finishing, less labour etc.. is taken into
consideration, then one would realize that SCC is
certainly not a costly concrete.
-The use of SCC Concrete in both the precast and
ready-mix markets in the UK, Europe and the rest of
the world is expected to continue to increase as the
experience and technology improves, the clients
demand a higher-quality finished product and the
availability of skilled labour continues to decrease.
DURABILITY OF CONCRETE
Concrete should be design to serve its
purpose
Should be durable
Factors that influence durability can be divided into:
the environment and usage factors (outside control)
the compositional and production factors
The environmental and Usage factors
Abrasion
Climatic condition
Atmospheric pollution
Biological attack
Chemical attack
ABRASION
Either of human action
wear and tear of factory or warehouse floor;
movement of machinery, goods, etc.
gradual wear of concrete roads by traffic
Or forces of nature
pounding of the ocean on concrete sea
defenses, jetties, etc.
CLIMATIC CONDITION
All exposed concrete must be able to withstand the extreme
conditions produced by the weather
Cycles of temperature changes, both daily and seasonal,
cause concrete to expand and contract.
Exposed surface hotter or colder than unexposed parts
causing temperature gradients
Durability must also be maintained in conditions of alternate
wetting and drying, extreme of ice and snow.
Due to expansion and contraction caused by these extremes
cracking or spalling may result from such climatic conditions.
ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
Discoloration of concrete surfaces is mainly the result of
dirt and chemicals in the atmosphere, particularly in town
and industrial areas.
Physical damage can be caused over a considerable
period of time from carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide.
Carbon dioxide reacts with lime compounds resulting in a
white deposit known as carbonation in the surface.
Sulphur dioxide reacts chemically and forms a skin on the
concrete surface, which subsequently disintegrates.
BIOLOGICAL ATTACK
Good quality dense concrete is also best defense against
the growth of moulds or plant life as lichens.
The described growth may enter concrete pores and
cause surface disintegration.
CHEMICAL ATTACK
A very common type of chemical attack is from sulphates
in soil and groundwater. (This is most important due to the
fact that nearly all structures employ some concrete below
ground level).
Sulphates react chemically causing expansion and
disruption of the concrete.
Sea water is another source of chemical attack (sulphates
and magnesium)
Durability should be maximised by choosing a type of
cement suitable for the level of sulphate concentration.
Also the concrete is dense so that penetration by
groundwater is minimised.
WATER/CEMENT RATIO
Concrete mixed with lowest possible W/C ratio and undergone
full compaction will result in a more durable concrete.
Concrete with no air voids and minimum of pores will give:
maximum abrasion resistance
will best prevent chemicals being absorbed
keep out all water which may freeze and expand
provide minimum foothold for organic growths
Table 6.1 BS 8110: Part 1 also specifies max. W/C ratio to give
greater impermeability in facing sulphates.
CEMENT CONTENT
To produce a dense impermeable concrete with a low W/C
ratio, increase cement content to maintain workability
Refer to Table 6.1 and 6.2,BS 8110: Part 1
AIR CONTENT
Airentrainment is used to improve the resistance of concrete
to frost damage and to protect from harmful effects of de-icing
salts in winter
Air entraining agent produced 4%-7% air content by volume of
fresh concrete.
The minute bubbles work in two ways:
bubbles break capillary path preventing moisture from being
attracted inwards.
the bubbles form a cushion which absorb any expansion of
Water
CURING
Adequate curing is essential to ensure that the concrete will be
durable. Longer curing periods are necessary in colder
conditions.
Refer to Table 6.5: BS 8110: Part 1: 1985.
Capillary suction
caused by surface
energy, for the vertical
capillary shown here,
the rise in water level
H=15/r mm, where r is
the radius of the pore
3=evaporation of water
4=Crystallization of
solute, giving
enrichment in the
evaporation zone
1=water transport by
hydraulic pressure
and capillary suction
2=transport of water
and dissolved agents
3=evaporation of
water
4=Crystallization of
solute, giving
enrichment in the
evaporation zone
1=water transport by
hydraulic pressure and
capillary suction
2=transport of water
and dissolved agents
3=evaporation of water
4=Crystallization of
solute, giving
enrichment in the
evaporation zone
Along with the water, dissolved agents (carbonates,
chlorides and sulphates) will be transported
Mechanisms of Fluid Transmission in Concrete
Absorption (capillary suction): Concrete takes
in a liquid normally water by capillary
attraction
The rate of water enter is term absorptivity
Absorptivity = ( capillary size, capillary
interconnection, moisture gradient )
Diffusion: A vapour, gas or ion can pass
through concrete under the action of
concentration gradient
The rate of agent enter is term diffusivity
splash
tidal
Primary transport
mechanism
Gas diffusion
Water vapour diffusion
submerged
Ionic diffusion
Water permeability
Concrete composition
Concrete composition mainly influences the plastic shrinkage
and settlement cracking, which depends on the bleeding of the
concrete
Bleeding can be diminished and even avoided:
carefully selecting the grading of the aggregates,
choosing a blended cement, and
using plasticing or superplasticing admixtures
Execution and curing
The workmanship associated with the execution process has a
decisive influence on the homogeneity and uniformity of cast
concrete as well as on the correct placement of the
reinforcement.
The concrete cover to the reinforcement and the quality of the
outer surface layer of the concrete are basic parameters
influencing the subsequent resistance to an aggressive
environment.
Cracking developed during the execution process and during
the initial period of hardening may be the main initial cause for a
later acceleration of deleterious actions which depend on water
or aggressive substances (Carbon dioxide, acids and sulphates)
entering from the outside through the outer concrete layer.
FROST AND DE-ICING AGENTS
Deterioration Mechanisms
Transition from water to ice involves an increase in volume by
9%, this will cause splitting of concrete.
Due to the wide range of pore radii of cement paste, only
about one third of the pore water will be frozen at a temperature
of 30oC and only two thirds will be frozen at 60oC.
A thin film of water coating the pore surfaces will remain even
after the pore water has formed ice (Fig. 3.16).
Effect of chlorides
on the freezing
properties of pore
water
Influencing Parameters
Concrete composition
The frost resistance of the concrete can thereby be
substantially improved;
In the case of a severe frost attack, air entrainment (air pores)
can reduce the relative weight loss to 10- 20% of that of
concrete without air entrainment.
With water cement ratio decreasing and cement content
increasing, the frost resistance of the concrete will increase (Fig.
3.24).
With decrease in the proportion of larger aggregates, an
increase in cement and air content will be required
to arrive at a frost resistance of equal strength.
EROSION
Erosion by Abrasion
Can be caused by
grinding action of pedestrian traffic on floors, scrapping
percussive impact of studded tyres on
Pavements
sliding of loose bulk materials (Figs 3.27).
heavy particles suspended in water (dams, hydroplant, bridge
pier, coastal structures, etc)
Influence of aggregates
Aggregates that are not frost-resistant will absorb water that
expands during freezing and destroys the cement paste.
Typical indications of such processes are local spallings above
larger-sized aggregates (pop-outs)
Erosion by Cavitation
If water without solids is flowing rapidly parallel to a limiting
surface, any change in geometry of the surface causes a flow
detachment and zones of low pressure at the limiting surface.
If the static pressure of streaming water becomes lower than
the vapour pressure of water, vapour filled bubbles develop in
this zone.
If the bubbles stream to zones where the static pressure
exceeds the vapour pressure of water, vapour condenses in the
bubbles and the bubbles collapse suddenly.
CREEP OF CONCRETE
- As for shrinkage, CREEP is time-dependent
phenomenon due to continued application of stress.
-CREEP takes place over many months or even years.
-In general, CREEP strain is proportional to log of
time under load.
-Upon REMOVAL of load, an instantaneous elastic
recovery occurs, and is followed by a
-CREEP OF CONCRETE continuing expansion known
as CREEP recovery.
-CREEP recovery is usually about 1/3 of the original
creep strain.
SUMMARY
(1) Effect of SHRINKAGE & CREEP on structural
behaviour:
-Continued deflection (excessive deflection) d
Span/250.
-Cracking Partition, cladding panel, floor slabs.
-Durability resistance to freezing & thawing,
corrosion of steel reinforcement.
(2) Factors influencing SHRINKAGE & CREEP:
-SIZE of members (the larger the member the smaller
the SHRINKAGE & CREEP)
-ENVIRONMENT (the higher the humidity the lesser
the SHRINKAGE & CREEP).
-STRENGTH of concrete (the higher the strength the
lesser the SHRINKAGE & CREEP).
-Types of aggregate.
acid attack
Exposure conditions
Exposure conditions may be modified by the presence of
constituents other than sulphate
An important example of this is the moderating influence of
chloride ions caused by the preferential formation of chloroaluminate (Fridell salt), which does not lead to detrimental
expansion.
Due to this mechanism sea water, which should be classified
as
highly aggressive according to its high sulphate content, is only
moderately aggressive. Therefore, sea water, being of great
importance as an exposure medium.
Sulphate attack
Accessibility of concrete
The degree of impermeability needed for concrete to be
sulphate resistant may be expressed as limiting values for depth
of water penetration over a fixed period of time.
For practical purposes, this is often translated into limiting
values for W/C ratio or concrete quality.
Cement type
The different types of cement may be classified according to
their ability to resist sulphate attack.
The American Society for Testing and Materials limits
aluminates to a maximum of 8% for moderate sulphate
resistance (MSR) and to a maximum of 5% for high sulphate
resistance (HSR). In Europe, a limit of 3% is generally accepted
for (high) sulphate resistance.
Recent research has unanimously shown the good behaviour
of blended cement. Several national standards recognize
Portland blastfurnace cement with a minimum of 65% slag as
HSR.
The introduction of the MSR class allows due appreciation of
other blended cement containing granulated slag or other
pozzolanic material, either natural or synthetic (fly ash and silica
fume).
Alkali-carbonate reaction
Assessment of alkali-carbonate reactivity, generally follows the
same lines.
Petrographic distinction of potentially dangerous material is
easily made.
A deleterious degree of expansion is only reached in the
presence of clayey components, possibly expressed as alumina
content.
Alkali Content
As alkali concentration in pore water is a decisive factor, the
alkali content of concrete at any given time is important. The
content of alkalis in cement is expressed as equivalent sodium
oxide (Na2Oeq):
% Na2Oeq = %Na2O + 0.658%K2O
Free alkali is mainly supplied by the cement.
Other sources - influx of alkali-containing water into hardened
concrete
Cement type
Portland cements with limited alkali content are special
cements with respect to alkaliaggregate reactivity, and have
been used as such for many years.
The use of blended cements normally causes
a decrease in both the alkali and the calcium concentration
a decreased permeability.
Exposure conditions
Exposure conditions certainly play a role and may be
responsible for the great difference in rate of deterioration of
concrete.
For concrete design, judgment of aggregates is based on test
results at constant and high humidity. It is known that intermittent
drying and wetting may lead to greater expansion.
A practical implication of influence of exposure is the possibility
of retarding or even preventing a progressing deterioration by
waterproofing the concrete.
Corrosion of reinforcement
The corrosion process can be separated as cathodic and then
anodic process (Fig. 6.3)
anodic process - dissolution of iron. Positively charged irons
ions pass into solution
Fe = Fe2+ + 2e-