BASICS OF

WELDING
.

Welding
A localized coalescence (joining
together) of metals or non-metals
produced either by heating the
materials to the welding temperature,
with or without the application of
pressure, or by the application of
pressure alone and with or without
the use of filler metal.

Welded Joints

Lap Joint

T Joint

Butt Joint

Edge Joint

Corner Joint

Welding processes

Fusion welding
Welding in the liquid state with no
pressure
and union is by molten metal bridging
e.g: SMAW, GTAW,SAW,FCAW, MMAW .

Solid phase welding

Carried out below the melting point
without filler additions. The pressure often
used and union is often by plastic flow.
e.g: Forge welding & Friction welding

WELD TYPES
BW- Butt-weld
SW-Socket weld
SOB-Set-on branch
RFD-Reinforced pad
LET- Sockolet, weldolet,

Butt Joint

1. Root gap
2. Root face
3. Bevel surface
4. Bevel angle
5. Included angle
6. Seam width
7. Thickness of the plate

Fillet Joint

1. Throat thickness
2. Leg length
3. Joint root
4. Joint edge
5. Joint surface
6. Fusion depth
7. Seam width

Butt weld & SW - Socket

weld
.

Butt weld fittings

Socket weld fittings

.

WELDING
POSITIONS
1F
2F
3F
4F
5F
1G
2G
3G
4G
5G
6G

1F

1G

2F

2G

3F

4F

3G

4G

Allied processes
Thermal cutting
Oxy-fuel gas, plasma, laser cutting
Gouging
Air-arc, plasma, oxy-fuel gas
Surfacing
Powder and arc spray coating
Clad welding, hard facing

Electric arc

Electric arc is sustained electric discharge over

a gaseous path between two poles. The arc
current is carried by ionized gas called plasma.
Welding arc temperature has been found to the
range between 5000 deg. C to 18000 deg. C
depending on the nature of the plasma and
current passing through the arc.
In covered electrode the max. Temperature is
about 6000 deg. C.
In inert gas shielded arc, the axial temperature
can be as high as 18000 deg. C.

The electric arc

Peak
temperatures
18000 K

Cathode
zone
Anode
zone

Electric discharge
between 2 electrodes
through a gas

Fusion welding
This process involves the partial melting
of the two members welded in the join
region. The thermal energy required for
this fusion is usually supplied by
Base metal melt + filler melt
chemical or electrical means.

Characteristics of the fusion weld joint

Shielded Metal Arc

Welding. (SMAW)
Work piece

Features of electrode
coating

Shielding - decomposes to form gaseous

shield for molten metal.
Deoxidation - fluxing action removes
oxygen and other atmospheric gases.
Alloying - provides additional alloying
elements for weld deposit.
Ionizing
improves
electrical
characteristics to increase arc stability.
Insulating - solidified slag provides
insulating blanket to slow down weld
metal cooling rate.

Electrode classification
as per AWS
E XX XX - X

Electrode
Minimum Tensile Strength in thousands psi
Positions in which electrode can be used
Composition of the coating (determines operating
characteristics and recommended electrical current)
Minimum content of alloying elements for low
alloy steels only.

SMAW Equipment

Constant current power source having drooping

characteristic.
The arc voltage is inversely related to arc current.
The arc voltage is directly related to the arc length.
Any changes in the arc length, changes the arc current
or the amount of heat created by the welding arc.
By manipulating the electrode to provide longer or
shorter arc lengths, the arc current can be altered
instantaneously resulting in uniform heating.
Modern power sources utilize controls which vary the
open circuit voltage (OCV) and slope of the curve to
produce a welding current having good operator
control and the proper magnitude.

POWER SOURCES

Advantages

Most of the materials can be welded.

Equipment is relatively simple and
inexpensive.
Welding can be accomplished in
remote locations.
The process is quite versatile.

Limitations

Very slow process - less productivity.

Removal of solidified layer of slag.
Electrodes particularly low H2 type
require proper storage in order to
maintain low moisture levels.

Discontinuities

Porosity - due to the presence of moisture in the

electrode coating / material surface / atmosphere or
using too long arc length.

Arc blow - due to presence of magnetic field resulting in

porosity, spatter, undercut, improper weld contour and
non-uniform penetration.

Slag inclusion - due to trapping slag within the weld

deposit.

Numerous other discontinuities can result from improper

manipulation of the electrode such as incomplete fusion,
incomplete penetration, cracking, undercut, overlap,
incorrect weld size and improper weld profile.

Shielded metal arc

welding process

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded

metal-arc welding process ( also known as
stick welding, because the electrode is in
the shape of a stick).

Fig : Schematic illustration of the shielded metalarc welding process. About 50% of all largescale industrial welding operations use this
process.

Covered electrodes

Functions of coating

Slag protects weld pool from

oxidation
Gas shielding also protects weld pool
Surface tension (fluxing)
Arc stabilising (ionising)
Alloying and deoxidation
Some ingredients aid manufacture
(binder and extrusion aids)

Typical coating
constituents

Organic materials (Cellulose)

Titanium dioxide (rutile)
Silica, alumino-silicates
Sodium and potassium silicate
binders
Calcium carbonate and fluoride
Iron powder, ferro-alloys

Submerged arc welding:

Submerged arc welding:

Weld arc is shielded by a granular flux ,consisting of silica,

lime, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride and other
compounds.

Flux is fed into the weld zone by gravity flow through nozzle

Thick layer of flux covers molten metal

Flux acts as a thermal insulator ,promoting deep

penetration of heat into the work piece

Consumable electrode is a coil of bare round wire fed

automatically through a tube

Power is supplied by 3-phase or 2-phase power lines

Submerged arc welding

SAW is an arc welding

process, in which arc is
struck
between
a
consumable electrode and
the work piece and the
arc
is
completely
submerged
under
a
blanket
of
granular,
fusible
flux,
which
adequately shields the arc
from
atmospheric
contamination.
The
process can be fully
automatic
or
semiautomatic, single arc or
multiple arc.

Equipment details

The SAW equipment

essentially consists of
A wire feeder to drive the
electrode to the work through
the contact tube of a welding
gun or wire feeder head.
A welding power source to
supply electric current to the
electrode at the contact tube.
An arrangement for holding
the flux and feeding it ahead of
the arc.
A means of traversing the weld
joint.

Welding power source

A welding power source can be any
one of the following
A DC generator of the constant
voltage or constant current type
A DC rectifier of the constant
voltage or constant current type

SAW consumable
FXXX-EXXX Example: F7A6-EM12K
F indicates the flux
1st digit 7 indicates the minimum tensile strength of the
weld metal deposited in terms of 10000 psi.
A indicates the condition of heat treatment in which the
test were conducted.A stands for as welded and P stands
for post weld heat treated.
6 indicates the lowest temperature at which the impact
strength of weld metal meets or exceeds 27 joules (20 ft
lbs.)
E indicates an electrode(solid)
M refers to medium manganese content.(L-Low, H-High
Mn).
K refers to Killed Steel.
Last two digits indicates the percentage of manganese
content.

Advantages of SAW process

High deposition rate when compared to other

processes like SMAW,GTAW,GMAW,FCAW etc.
It has a very high operator appeal because of
lack of visible arc which allows the operator to
control the welding without the need for a
filter lens and other heavy protective clothing.
Spatter and smoke generation is very less.
Very high penetration
Very smooth weld bead even in multi-pass weld
layers without any valleys or abrupt ridges

Limitations

Can only be operated in flat and horizontal position,

where the flux can be supported in the weld joint.
Prevents the operator from seeing exactly where
the arc is positioned with respect to the joint.
The granular flux needs to be baked prior to use as
in SMAW low hydrogen electrode.
When the welding parameters are improper, weld
contours could be such that the job of slag removal
becomes more difficult.
When bead width is much greater then its depth or
vice versa, center line shrinkage cracking could
occur during solidification.

SAW weld defects

Slag inclusion
porosity
cracking of welds
Incomplete fusion

Consumables

Solid or cored wires

Granular fluxes
Agglomerated, fused or sintered
Alloying activity

Contribution to weld metal chemistry from flux

Basicity
Acid fluxes made from manganese oxide, silica,
rutile are easy to use
Basic fluxes (MgO, CaO, CaF2, Al2O3) provide
excellent toughness welds

Applications of SAW

Long straight welds in heavier

material
Vessel longitudinal and circumferential
welds
Flange to web joints of I beams

Flat or horizontal position

Flux has to be supported

Access has to be good

Gas Tungsten Arc

Welding

Alternative names
- GTAW,TIG
(Tungsten Inert
Gas), Argonarc
Heat source is an
electric arc
between a nonconsumable
electrode and the
workpiece
Filler metal is not
added or is added
independently

GTAW process outline

Torch
Ceramic
shroud

Tungsten
electrode
Collet
Gas lens
(optional)

Power
source

Arc

Filler
Weld metal
Weld pool

Torch
lead (-)

Inert
gas

Work
lead (+)

Process features

Stable arc at low power (80A at 11V)

Independently added filler
Ideal for root runs in pipe or thin sheet
Low productivity 0.5kg/h manual
Clean process, no slag
Low oxygen and nitrogen weld metal
Excellent profile even for single sided
welds

Equipment for GTAW

Welding power source with constant

current characteristic
DC for most metals, AC for Al
Arc starting by high frequency (5000V,
0.05A)
Sequence timers for arc starting, arc
finishing & gas control

Water- or gas-cooled torch with tungsten

electrode

Electrode may contain thoria or zirconia, etc

Shielding gases

Torch is fed with an inert or reducing gas

Backing (or purge) gas

Pure argon - widespread applications

Argon-helium - Higher arc voltage, inert
Argon-20% hydrogen - Cu alloys & austenitic steel
Torch gas must not contain oxygen or CO 2
Used for all single-sided welds except in carbon
steel
Argon, nitrogen, former gas (N2 + H2)

Supplementary shielding

Reactive metals: Ti, etc

Gas filled chambers or additional gas supply
devices

Filler metals

Autogenous welding (no filler)

Filler wire or rod of matching
composition
C-Mn & low alloy steel
Stainless Steel
Al, Mg, Ti
Cu & Ni

Consumable inserts - filler preplaced in

joint

Gas Metal-Arc Welding

Fig : Schematic illustration of the gas metal-arc welding process,

formerly known as MIG (for metal inert gas) welding.

Main
equipment
torch

electric power source

shielding gas source

wire spool with wire drive control

Equipment required for the GMAW
(Modern Welding (p63))

Flux Cored Arc Welding

(FCAW)

Similar to GMAW process except that the electrode is

tubular containing a granular flux.

Shielding gas may or may not be used depending on the

type of electrode used (e.g. self-shielded flux cored wires
do not require gas shielding).

Solidified weld metal is covered by a layer of slag.

Equipment used is identical to GMAW except high current

capacity guns and power sources.

Advantages

High efficiency due to Increased deposition

rate.
Good performance on contaminated surfaces.
Can be used for field applications.
Deep penetrating arc reduces the possibility
of fusion problems.
Frequent
changing
of
electrodes
is
eliminated

Limitations

Presence of a layer of solidified slag.

Smoke generated is more than in
GMAW.
Equipment
required
is
more
complex.
Slag inclusion due to trapping slag
within the weld deposit.
High travel speed is required.

GMAW and FCAW outline

Wire feeder

Torch gas

Wire
feed

Power
source

_
Weld Metal
Base material

Weld pool

Return Lead

Heat balance in Arc

welding
15 % - heat consumed
by core wire of
SMAW
the
electrode.
process:

15% - heat consumed by the coating of

the electrode.
15% - heat goes to atmosphere.
55% - heat gets the work piece.
(Out of this 10% of the heat goes to the
atmosphere
at root area and rest will be absorbed

Torch gas mixtures

Inert gases (MIG)

Argon or helium or mixtures of these
Active base metals, Al, Mg, Ti

Active gases (MAG and FCAW)

Carbon dioxide
Argon plus oxygen and/or carbon
dioxide
Nitrogen, hydrogen

Heat balance in Arc

welding

GTAW process
Work piece gets 33% heat
and
Electrode gets 66% heat.
It is vise versa whenever polarity
changes.

Distortion & Residual Stress

The Problems

If two materials are free to move - usually results in

Distortion. Weldment usually bends upwards from
top of weld.
If material is held in a jig throughout the heating
and cooling process, massive internal stresses will
build up. Once released from jig, if stress is high
enough to deform the material, distortion will result
often a problem when welding sheet, or thin plate.
Otherwise, stress will remain as residual stress. This
stress can cause cracking or fracture of the weld, or
unexpected failure during the weldments working
life. Residual stress may be removed by using a
suitable heat treatment must be careful not to alter
the materials other properties.

Distortion & Residual Stress

The Solutions I

Design of weld joint to allow

weldment to distort into the desired
shape. Eg:

Reduce the amount of heat applied to the plate by using faster

welding speeds, or smaller, more powerful heating methods, eg.
Electron beam welding, laser welding

Distortion & Residual Stress

The Solutions II

Internal stresses can be reduced by pre-bending the

plates using clamps and allowing it to be cooled in
the stressed position. When the clamps are removed
the plates spring back into alignment, reducing the
internal stresses in the process

Use balanced welding 2 welders working on either

side of the structure to balance out the forces

Weld away from the point of restraint and towards

the point of freedom

Use welds with the minimum root openings, reduced

bevel angles and weld reinforcement

Distortion & Residual Stress

The Solutions III

Distortion can be reduced if welds

are arranged in such a way that the
forces cancel out:

Butt Joint
T Joints

Distortion & Residual Stress

The Solutions IV

Pre-heating. The entire structure may be

preheated, with the heat maintained throughout
the welding. Heating must be uniform, otherwise
additional stresses will be added. Structure must
be allowed to cool slowly
Post-heating. Most common method. Has the
effect of relaxing the microstructure. Heating and
cooling must be uniform and preferably slow. As
example, mild steel is normally heated to ~600C
Annealing. Superior results, but difficult to
achieve. Steels are heated to ~880C. Can cause
the formation of heavy scale and can cause the
collapse of welds.

Preheating

Preheating of the base material is

necessary for the following:
To minimize the distortion.
To prevent the cracking of the deposit.
To prevent cracking of the job.
To improving ductility of the base
material and HAZ.
To eliminate hydrogen induced crack.

Post heating
Post heating of the weld material
is necessary for the following:
To prevent delayed hydrogen
diffused crack
To improve the performance of
structures subjected to dynamic
load.

PWHT Post Weld Heat

Treatment
PWHT of the weld material is
necessary for the following:

To reduce the hardness of the

weldment and HAZ.

To reduce the residual stresses and

increasing the ductility of the weld
metal and HAZ.

WELDING DEFECTS
AND
THEIR CAUSES
AND PREVENTION

Definition of Discontinuity
In welding the main objective is to obtain
sound, defect-free welded joints.
Normal welds may contain imperfections
which cause some variation in the normal
average properties of the weld metal.
These are called as discontinues.

Definition of Defects
Whenever such discontinuities exceeds the
limit specified by engineering design, those

Defects are caused by the

following reasons :
Use of wrong welding consumables.
Improper welding parameter.
Poor workmanship.
Lack of cleanliness of the welding
joint.

Some of the common

welding defects are as
follows :

Slag Inclusion
Cracks,
Distortion
Incomplete penetration
Porosity and blow holes
Lack of fusion
Undercut

Slag Inclusion
Non metallic particles of
comparatively large size entrapped
in the weld metal are termed as slag
inclusion.
Slag inclusions are normally detected
by normal non destructive test
methods.

To prevent slag
inclusion, following
steps are to be taken:
Use of proper welding consumable
Keep joint surfaces and bare wires
clean
Avoid undercuts and gaps between
weld passes

Crack
Crack is defined as a discontinuity
caused by the tearing of the metal
while in a plastic condition (hot crack)
or
By fracturing of the metal when cold
(cold crack).
Crack represents a failure under stress
of a metal when it is behaving in a
brittle manner.

The main causes of

crack :

Rigidity of the joint.

i.e. joint members are not free to

expand or contract when subjected to
welding heat and subsequent cooling
(localized stress).
Poor ductility of the base metal.
High S and C % of base metal.
Improper preheating.

Prevention of Crack by :
Using a steel of lower
carbon equivalent

Higher heat input during

welding.
Preheating.
Low-hydrogen welding

Distortion
Distortion is a serious problem in welding. It
creates difficulties in maintaining correct shape,
dimensions and tolerances of a finished
fabrication.
Reason of Distortion:
Increase in the volume of metal deposited.
Unequal heating and cooling of a metallic body
during welding.
It is also caused by the contraction of the weldmetal during solidification and cooling to room
temperature, they try to pull the parts together
and the result is distortion.

Prevention of Distortion:
Use as few weld passes as possible.
Use skip method of welding.
Balance shrinkage forces with
opposing forces imposed by clamps,
jigs and fixtures.

Incomplete Penetration
This defect occurs at the root of the joint
when the weld metal fails to reach it or the
weld-metal fails to fuse completely with the
root faces of the joint.
Reason for Incomplete penetration
Too large root face.
Root gap too small.
Too small bevel angle.
Less arc current.
Faster arc travel speed.

Prevention of Incomplete
Penetration
Proper fit-up of welds with proper
root gap, root face.
Selection of proper welding process
and size of electrode / filler wire.
Use of skilled welder

Porosity, blow holes or gas pockets

The presence of a group of gas pores in a weld
caused by the entrapment of gas during
solidification is termed as porosity. The pores
are in the form of small spherical cavities,
either clustered locally or scattered throughout
the weld deposit. Sometimes the entrapped
gases give rise to a single large cavity, which
is termed as a blowhole.
Gases are evolved by the chemical reaction in
the welding arc. These gases may have high
solubility in the molten weld metal, but as the
metal solidifies and cools, their solubility

Reason of Porosity
Improper welding consumables. i.e.
deficient in de-oxidizers.
Oil, grease, moisture and mill scale
on the joint surface.
Inadequate gas shielding or impure
gas in a gas-shielded process.
Low welding current or too long an
arc.

Prevention of Porosity
Use dry, clean filler rods /electrodes.
Base plate should be thoroughly cleaned of
oil, grease, paint etc.
Do not overheat the welding zone.
Remove all flux and slag between multipass weld.
Keep a weld puddle of sufficient size that
slows down the cooling rate of the weld
metal.

Creating the inert gas atmosphere in the

Lack of fusion
Lack of fusion is defined as a condition
where boundaries /gaps exist between
the weld metal and base metal or
between adjacent / subsequent layers of
weld metal.
Reason of Lack of Fusion
This defect is caused by the presence of
scale, dirt, oxide, slag and other non
metal is substances which prevent the
underlying metal from reaching the

Prevention of lack of fusion

Keep joint surfaces free from oil, slag,
grease.
Use adequate welding current with
proper weaving and travel speed.
De-slag each weld pass

Undercut
In undercutting a groove gets formed in the
parent metal along the sides of the weld bead.
Groove reduces the thickness of the plate and
thus the area along the bead, which in turn
weakens the weld.
Reason of undercut
1.Wrong manipulation and inclination of
electrode and excessive weaving.
2. Too large electrode diameter.
3. Higher current.
4. Faster arc travel speed.

Prevention of Undercut
1. Proper control of welding current.
2. Clean surfaces.
3. Shorter arc.
4. Proper selection of welding
electrodes.

Safety requirement in
arc cutting and welding
All metal cutting & welding operations
involves electric arc as an intense
source of heat. This can harm the
operators eyes and skin, and fire hazard.
The other sources of fire in these
process are hot metal and its flying
particles, and stray arcs due to short
circuiting.

Safety requirement in
arc cutting and welding
Arc cutting and welding process expose

the welder to the danger of electric

shock, and releases fumes and gases
which can be potential health
hazards.

Safety requirement in
arc cutting and welding

Precautions:

Welder must be explained the method of avoiding electric shock.

The welder must always wear shoes, gloves and protective clothing.
He must use head shied / goggles to protect the eyes from rays of an
electric arc.
Electrode must be removed from the holder and Gas cylinders valves
must be closed when not in use.
Welders and supervisors must check their equipment regularly to see
that electric connections and insulation on the holders and cables
are in good order.
Whenever welders are working in confined space, life line is
essential.

Safety requirement in
arc cutting and welding

The fumes and gases produced from

welding is non-toxic or toxic,
depending on the materials being
welded.

Prolonged exposure to the various

toxic gases can produce inflammation
of the lung, chronic bronchitis and loss
of elasticity of the lung.