Topic 3 Modelling

Topic 3: Modelling
Raster graphics
CAD
software for mechanical design uses either vectorbased graphics to depict the objects of traditional drafting,
or may also produce raster graphics showing the overall
appearance of designed objects.
Raster graphics are resolution dependent, meaning they
cannot scale up to an arbitrary resolution without loss of
apparent quality. This property contrasts with the
capabilities of vector graphics, which easily scale up to the
quality of the device rendering them. Raster graphics deal
more practically than vector graphics with photographs and
photo-realistic images, while vector graphics often serve
better for typesetting or for graphic design
Most computer images are stored in raster graphics formats
or compressed variations, including GIF, JPEG, and PNG.
Raster-based image editors, such as Painter, Photoshop,
Paint.NET, MS Paint, and GIMP, revolve around editing
pixels, unlike vector-based image editors, such as Xfig,
CorelDRAW, Adobe Illustrator, or Inkscape, which revolve
Raster graphics
CAD
An Example - Atlas Touring

Motorcycle
Concept
Sketches

Motorcycle
Concept
Image 1

Motorcycle
Concept
Image 2

Motorcycle
Concept
Image 3

Motorcycle
Concept
Image 4

Motorcycle
Concept
Image 5

Motorcycle
Styling
Mockup 2

Motorcycle
Styling
Mockup 3
3.1 CONCEPTUAL MODELLING

Essential idea:
A conceptual model originates in the mind and its
primary purpose is to outline the principles,
processes and basic functions of a design or
system.
Conceptual modelling
Designers
use conceptual modelling to assist their

understanding by simulating the subject matter they
represent.
Designers should consider systems, services and
products in relation to:
What they should do?
How they should behave?
What they look like?
How will users understand it in the manner intended?
The starting point for solving a problem springs from
an idea developed in the mind. A detailed exploration
of the idea is vital to take it from the intangible to the
tangible, along with the ability to articulate the idea to
others.
The role of conceptual modelling in design

Conceptual
modeling is the activity of describing major

aspects of the design goal for the purposes of
understanding and communication
A conceptual model should satisfy four fundamental
objectives.
Enhance the designers understanding of the system or
object being considered.
Should efficiently transmit details between
stakeholders designer, client and possibly marketing
team.
Provide a point of reference for designers to extract
specifications what is it we are trying to create?
Document for future reference and provide a means
for collaboration
Concept map
http://www.yworks.com/en/products/yfiles/yed/
Brainstorming an example for

Product Presentation
Supportin
g
argument
s
Final
pitch
Presentati
on topic
Product
presentati
on
Video
Graphic
s
Handou
ts
demograph
ics
Introducti
on
Visual
Aids
refreshme
nts
Deliver
y
Locatio
n
Available
technolog
y
http://www.mindtools.com/brainstm.html
concern
s
knowled
ge
Audien
ce
expectatio
ns
Size of
room
Time
availabl
e
Case
studies
Analysi
s
Same example- more organized
Same example- more organized
A different approach
Brainstorming
Brainstorming
combines a relaxed, informal approach to

problem-solving with lateral thinking
It asks that people come up with ideas and thoughts
that can at first seem to be a bit crazy
The idea here is that some of these ideas can be crafted
into original, creative solutions to the problem you're
trying to solve while others can spark still more ideas.
This approach aims to get people unstuck, by jolting
them out of their normal ways of thinking.
Brainstorming diagrams can best be described as a
visual aid for outlining, conceptualizing, and planning.
You use a variety of visualizations to aid your inspiration
besides brainstorming diagrams you can use flow
charts, concept maps, and text outlines.
Attribute listing
Attribute
listing works as a decompositional approach,

breaking the problem down into smaller parts that can be
examined individually.
Breaking down an object into constituent parts and looking at
the attributes of each part in question
A screwdriver might be broken down into the handle, the
shaft and the tip.
The tip then has attributes of 'fits screw', 'thin blade', etc.
For each attribute, ask ,what does this give'?
The handle of a screwdriver being examined has attributes
of, hexagonal which have the value of 'helps grip' and
'stops rolling on workbench" but has negative value of 'sharp
corners'
Look for ways in which you can modify the attributes in some
way, you could modify the attributes of the screwdriver
handle to be a 'comfortable grip' by adding a rubber sleeve'
Attribute listing
Feature
Attribute Positive
Negative Modify
Handle
Hexagona Good grip

l
Dos not
roll when
put on a
surface
Sharp
corners
Shank
Circular
At handle None
end needs
projection
s
Blade
Tapering
Functional None
from
circular to
flat
Tip
Flat
Easy to
form, fits
into
handle
Fits into
groove of
screw or
Add
rubber
sleeve
None
Metal is
Temper
brittle and tip to
can break strengthe
Morphological Synthesis
An
elaboration of attribute listing

Morphological Synthesis, begins in the same fashion as
attribute listing.
The designer considers both attributes and commonly
accepted values for each.
Then, new combinations of attributes and values are
examined.
The designer looks for unknown combinations which
may prove to be creative.
While this is similar to attribute listing, in morphological
synthesis, the designer does not concentrate on
changing attributes one-at-a-time; instead, interesting
combinations are concentrated on.
This leads to faster generation of potentially creative
artifacts.
Morphological Synthesis example

Imagine
that you want to create a new lamp.

The starting point for this might be to carry out a
morphological analysis.
Properties of a lamp might be power supply, bulb type,
light intensity, size, style, finish, material, etc.
Designers often use a variety of techniques to help
with the developing of ideas
Actual techniques selected depend upon: personal
choice, design context and time/resources available.
Morphological Synthesis example Light Size Style Finish

Power Bulb
Materi
al
supply
type
intens
ity
Battery
Halog
en
Low
Very
large
Modern Black
Metal
Mains
LCD
Mediu
m
Large
Antique White
Cerami
c
Solar
Daylig High
ht
Mediu
m
Roman
Concret
e
Generat Colore Variabl

or
d
e
Small
Art
Terracot Bone
Noveau ta
Crank
Hand
held
Industri Enamel
al
Glass
Ethnic
Natural
Wood
Fabric
Stone
Gas
Oil/petr
ol
Metallic
Morphological Synthesis example

Interesting
combinations might be :
Solar powered/battery, medium intensity, daylight
bulb - possibly used in clothes shops to allow
customers to see the true color of clothes.
Large hand cranked arc lights - used in developing
countries, or far from a mains power supply.
A ceramic oil lamp in Roman style - used in themed
restaurants, resurrecting the olive oil lamps of 2000
years ago.
A normal table lamp designed to be painted,
wallpapered or covered in fabric so that it matches the
style of a room perfectly
Theory of knowledge:
In
the construction of a model, how can we

know which aspects of the world to include
and which to ignore?
3.2 Graphical modelling

Essential idea:
Graphical models are used to communicate design ideas.
Graphical Modelling
Graphical
models can take many forms, but their

prime function is always the sameto simplify the
data and present it in such a way that understanding
of what is being presented aids further development
or discussion.
Designers utilize graphical modelling as a tool to
explore creative solutions and refine ideas from the
technically impossible to the technically possible,
widening the constraints of what is feasible.
Freehand Sketching
Orthographic projections
Perspective drawing
Isometric assembly
Annotated orthographic
Ideas may evolve
Freehand sketching
A
spontaneous representation of ideas on paper

without the use of technical aids.
When designers produce freehand sketches they often
include annotations that explain features being
incorporated.
Annotations allow the designer to record ideas that
may be used in further development.
Freehand drawing
The
proverbial sketch on the back of an envelope.

An integral part of the creative design process is
ideation, the generation of concepts or ideas to solve
a design problem.
Often freehand sketching can be used to explore and
communicate mental concepts that come about in the
minds eye.
The process of sketching can solidify and fill out rough
concepts.
Sketching captures the ideas in a permanent form that
can be used to communicate the concept to others.
In this way, sketches often act as stepping stones to
refine and detail the original concept or generate new
ideas.
Freehand sketching
Freehand
sketching requires few tools: just a pencil

and paper.
Drawing instruments slow down the process and
distract from the purpose of sketching, which is to
create a quick, rough graphical representation of the
image in the minds eye
Generally sketching has three steps:
First, the sketch is planned by visualizing it in the
mind including the size of the sketch on the paper,
the orientation of the object, and the amount of
detail to be included in the sketch.
Second, the sketch is outlined using very light lines
to establish the orientation, proportion, and major
features of the sketch.
The importance of annotating

freehand drawings
Annotations
accompany drawings to improve the

communication of information.
Documents all the ideas that are part of the design
process.
Identify problems for future resolution
Note a variety of alternatives
Records the designers thoughts for later reference.
The purpose of two- and threedimensional (2D and 3D)

freehand drawings.
Designers
use a range of freehand drawings in the

early stages of developing ideas to explore shape
and form (3D) and constructional details (2D).
3D sketches provide designers with a sense of form,
proportions and aesthetics.
2D sketches are able to detail structural features.
Sketching techniques 1
All
sketches are made up of a series of arcs and lines,

so the ability to draw circles and straight lines is
necessary.
A straight line is sketched in the following way.
First, sketch the endpoints of the line as dots or small
crosses. Then place your pencil on the starting
endpoint. Keeping your eyes on the terminal point,
use a smooth continuous stroke to draw the line
between the points as shown below.
Nearly horizontal or vertical lines are frequently easier
to draw than inclined lines, so it may be helpful to
shift the paper to draw the line horizontally or
vertically.
A
circle can be sketched using the following steps.

First, draw light horizontal and vertical lines
crossing at the center of the circle.
Second, lightly mark the radius of the circle on
each line. Finally, connect the radius marks with a
curved line to form a circle.
A
circle can also be sketched using the

following steps.
Another technique is to lightly draw a square
box the same size as the circle diameter.
Then lightly draw diagonals of the box and centerlines between
midpoints of the sides of the box.
The diagonals and centerlines should intersect at the center of the
circle.
Mark the radius on these lines, and sketch the circle within the box.
It is sometimes helpful to mark the radius on the edge of a scrap
paper and mark the radius at as many points as desired in addition
to the marks on the centerlines and diagonals.
Arcs are sketched in much the same way as circles, except that
only a portion of the circle is sketched. It is generally easier to
sketch an arc with your hand and pencil on the concave side of the
arc.
Freehand sketching - exercise

In
the middle of a sheet of paper draw a sketch of the subject

of your design project.
To the right of it (if you are right handed, or left, if left
handed) draw another sketch with one minor aspect changed,
to right again do several more sketches with variations on the
first aspect you chose to vary.
Now above the first sketch choose some other aspect to vary
and do several more sketches with this aspect changing.
Continue to process with other aspects of the object and fill
the page and more with sketches, making minor changes all
the time.
Now start to annotate the sketches with what you like and
dont like.
Finally get a fresh piece of paper and make a final sketch
incorporating all the best aspects of your many exploration
sketches.
Pictorials Isometric Projection
Special paper with a triangular grid, orientate so one line appears as vertical
Draw three lines from a point near the edge closest to you, each one parallel
to the sides of the triangles of the grid
Identify the base of your object, break it into a set of squares, sketch
the squares on the grid, using the lines to guide you.
1
2
1
Code each shape with the corresponding height of the block to be built on
top of the footprint
1
2
1
Draw vertical lines to satisfy the required heights
1
2
1
Add the tops
Use shading, or different colours to distinguish the three main planes
Use shading, or different colors to distinguish the three main planes
Use shading, or different colors to distinguish the three main planes
Oblique Pictorial Sketches
If you do not shorten oblique

lines, there look like they are
getting wider
Comparison of isometric and

oblique pictorial representation
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing
Perspective drawing part 2
Orthographic drawing
Orthographic projection (or orthogonal projection) is
a means of representing a three-dimensional object
in two dimensions. It is a form of parallel projection,
where all the projection lines are orthogonal (at right
angles) to the projection plane. It is further divided
into multiview orthographic projections and
axonometric
projections.
Gaspard Monge's
four quadrants and two planes
First-angle projection
In first-angle projection, the object is conceptually
located in quadrant I, i.e. it floats above and before the
viewing planes, the planes are opaque, and each view is
pushed through the object onto the plane furthest from
it.
Extending to the 6-sided box, each view of the object is
projected in the direction (sense) of sight of the object,
onto the (opaque) interior walls of the box; that is, each
view of the object is drawn on the opposite side of the
box. A two-dimensional representation of the object is
then created by "unfolding" the box, to view all of the
interior walls. This produces two plans and four
elevations.
Third-angle projection
In third-angle projection, the object is conceptually
located in quadrant III, i.e. it is positioned below and
behind the viewing planes, the planes are transparent,
and each view is pulled onto the plane closest to it.
Assignment
Criterion B: Conceptual design part 1
Develops
ideas to meet appropriate specifications

which explore solutions to the problem
Ideas must be developed and refined to enable a decision
to be made about the preferred design to be developed in
detail. This must include:
generating original ideas
selecting ideas to incrementally improve them to meet
appropriate specifications
communicating ideas clearly using appropriate techniques
annotation to identify key features and explain how they meet
the design specifications
undertaking additional research as required to inform
development.
The evidence for achievement against this strand should be
presented in approximately six letter size pages or the
equivalent.
Assignment
Uses
concept modelling to guide design

development
Concept models in the form of sketches, CAD, 2D and 3D
models should be used to establish the validity of ideas
against specifications before refining ideas through
detailed development.
Concept modelling is used to:
test design ideas to find out if they will meet requirements
provide feedback, which is used to develop designs further.
Students should consider the appropriate use of
conceptual, graphical, physical and CAD models to
develop, refine and test their ideas.
The evidence for achievement against this strand should
be presented in approximately four letter size pages or the
equivalent.
Assignment
Justifies
the most appropriate idea for detailed

development
The most appropriate idea should be validated against
specifications before development is refined to enable
manufacture.
Evaluate ideas and models against the design
specification to identify the most feasible solution.
Present the most feasible idea.
The evidence for achievement against this strand
should be presented in approximately one letter size
page or the equivalent.
Are
there aspects of the world that are not

amenable to modelling?
To what extent does graphical
communication shape and limit our
knowledge?
3.3 PHYSICAL MODELLING
Essential idea:
A physical model is a three-dimensional, tangible representation
of a design or system.
Physical modelling
Designers
use physical models to visualize information

about the context that the model represents. It is very
common for physical models of large objects to be
scaled down and smaller objects scaled up for ease of
visualization. The primary goal of physical modelling is
to test aspects of a product against user requirements.
Thorough testing at the design development stage
ensures that an appropriate product is developed.
Physical modelling not only allows designers to explore
and test their ideas, but to also present them to others.
Engaging clients, focus groups and experts to interact
with physical models of products allows designers to
gain valuable feedback that enable them to improve
the design and product-user interface.
Scale models
A
scale model is most generally a physical

representation of an object, which maintains accurate
relationships between all important aspects of the
model, although absolute values of the original
properties need not be preserved. This enables it to
demonstrate some behavior or property of the original
object without examining the original object itself. The
most familiar scale models represent the physical
appearance of an object in miniature, but there are
many other kinds.
To be a true scale model all relevant aspects must be
accurately modeled, such as material properties, so
the scale model's interaction with the outside world is
reliably related to the original object's interaction with
the real world.
Scale models
In
general the scale of any quantity, , is defined as:
where is the quantity value of the prototype

where is the quantity value of the model
As well as obvious scaling of lengths this can also apply
to such measures as material density, or tensile
strength, etc.
Practical concerns include the cost to construct the
model, available test facilities to condition and observe
the model, the availability of certain model materials,
and even who will build the scale model.
Practical requirements are often very diverse
depending on the purpose of the scale model and they
all must be considered to have a successful scale
model experience.
Architectural Scale Models
Beautiful Things:
The Aesthetics of Surfaces
Aesthetics
(also spelled sthetics or esthetics) is a

branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of
beauty, art, and taste, and with the creation and
appreciation of beauty.
It is more scientifically defined as the study of sensory
or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called
judgments of sentiment and taste.
More broadly, scholars in the field define aesthetics as
critical reflection on art, culture and nature.
What is beauty?
Beauty
is in the eye of the

beholder.
paraphrase from Plato, 3rd c. BC
Subjective view
A thing of beauty is a joy forever;
Its loveliness increases; it will
never
Pass into nothingness.
John Keats, 18th c.
Measurable view
Beauty is only skin deep, but ugly
goes clean to the bone.
Dorothy Parker
Subjective? Measurable?
Which is more beautiful?
Botticelli
Botticelli
Rubens
Matisse
Picasso
Van Gogh
Huysum
Van
Eameses
Le Corbusier
Kuramata
Starck

Polish
Pottery from the

Boleslawiec region of
Poland
Starck
juicy salif
Evolutionary Aesthetics
Refers
to the theory in which Homo sapiens' basic

aesthetic preferences have evolved based on
survival needs.
It is the nature approach (with regards to nature
versus nurture tug of war) that claims survival as a
motivator for likeness, uniformity, resemblance
within a species.
Scientific adjustments
1923
Max Factor Beauty

Calibrator
measuring device used
by Hollywood make-up
artists to pinpoint where
facial corrections
needed to be made
Algorithmic theory of beauty

In
the 1990s, Jrgen

Schmidhuber described
an algorithmic theory of
beauty which takes the
subjectivity of the
observer into account
and proposes that
regularity and
symmetry are the
unchangeable qualities
of beauty; that we look
for in qualifying
something as beautiful.
Pierre Bourdieu
Pierre
Bourdieu: Aesthetic experience of beauty

possess two concepts of value: aesthetics and
taste.
Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty.
Taste is a result of an education process and
awareness of elite cultural values learned through
exposure to mass culture.
Bourdieu examined how the elite in society define
the aesthetic values like taste and how varying
levels of exposure to these values can result in
variations by class, cultural background, and
education.
cultural capital = education
economic capital = money
Scale models
Most
useful in
Architecture
Ship building
Aircraft building
Civil engineering
Film making
Aesthetic Design Models
Mock-ups
In
manufacturing and design, a mockup, or mock-up,

is a scale or full-size model of a design or device, used
for teaching, demonstration, design evaluation,
promotion, and other purposes.
A mockup is a prototype if it provides at least part of
the functionality of a system and enables testing of a
design.
Mock-ups are used by designers mainly to acquire
feedback from users.
Mock-ups address the idea captured in a popular
engineering one-liner: You can fix it now on the
drafting board with an eraser or you can fix it later on
the construction site with a sledge hammer.
Mock-ups - applications
In
the automotive industry as part of the product

development process, where dimensions, overall
impression, and shapes are tested in a wind tunnel
experiment. They can also be used to test consumer
reaction
The traditional process of

manually
refining the design of a car
using
clay over foam formwork, is
still
used even today, when CAD
has
Various reports have claimed that

Apple seems to be working on its
ownvehicle under the codename
Project Titan. The company has
been hiring a lot of automobile
experts, and even regulatory
filings from its own lawyers in
Switzerland seem to
Mockups
in software and systems engineering are a

way of designing user interfaces on paper or in
computer images.
A software mockup will thus look like the real thing,
but will not do useful work beyond what the user sees.
Consumer
goods
Mockups are used in the consumer goods industry as
part of the product development process, where
dimensions, human factors, overall impression, and
commercial art are tested in marketing research.
Furniture
and cabinetry
Mockups are commonly required by designers,
architects, and end users for custom furniture and
cabinetry.
The intention is often to produce a full-sized replica,
using inexpensive materials in order to verify a design.
Mockups are often used to determine the proportions of
the piece, relating to various dimensions of the piece
itself, or to fit the piece into a specific space or room.
The ability to see how the design of the piece relates to
the rest of the space is also an important factor in
determining size and design.
When designing a functional piece of furniture, such as a
desk or table, mockups can be used to test whether they
suit typical human shapes and sizes.
Designs that fail to consider these issues may not be
practical to use.
Prototypes
A
prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a

product built to test a concept or process or to act as a
thing to be replicated or learned from.
There is no general agreement on what constitutes a
"prototype" and the word is often used interchangeably
with the word "model" which can cause confusion. In
general, "prototypes" fall into two basic categories:
Proof-of-Principle Prototype (Model) used to test
some aspect(s) of the intended design without
attempting to exactly simulate the visual appearance,
choice of materials or intended manufacturing process.
Form Study Prototype (Model). This type of
prototype will allow designers to explore the basic size,
look and feel of a product without simulating the actual
function or exact visual appearance of the product.
Differences between a
prototype and a production
design
In general, prototypes will differ from the final
production variant in three fundamental ways:
Materials only low cost processing materials are
used for prototypes
Processes only low cost processing techniques are
used
Lower fidelity the quality of finish is much lower
than the final product.
Characteristics and limitations

of prototypes
Prototypes
will represent some compromise from the

final production design
Individual prototype costs will be substantially greater
than the final production costs due to inefficiencies in
materials and processes
Rapid prototyping has sped up the prototyping
process.
Instrumented models
Instrumented
physical models are the most effective

way of investigating fluid flows such as around
hydraulic structures and aerodynamic objects in a
wind tunnel.
Usually these are scaled down models.
http://
videos.howstuffworks.com/nasa/2169-how-wind-tunnel
s-work-video.htm
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EmwsvmefrbQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T7bYl0jKt70
Models
that only show aspects of reality are

widely used in design. How can they lead to
new knowledge?
3.4 COMPUTER-AIDED
DESIGN (CAD)
Essential idea:
A computer-aided design is the generation,
creation, development and analysis of a design
or system using computer software.
Computer-aided design
(CAD)
As
technologies improve and the software becomes

more powerful, so do the opportunities for designers
to create new and exciting products, services and
systems.
Greater freedom in customization and personalization
of products has a significant impact on the end user.
The ability to virtually prototype, visualize and share
designs enhances the whole design cycle from data
analysis through to final designs.
(CAD)
Computer-aided
design (CAD) is the use of

computer systems to assist:
in the creation pen driven software such as
Sketchup can be used to record sketches of ideas
modification - existing drawings of objects can be
easily modified either as part of the refining of a
design or the adaptation of a part to another design.
analysis CAD software can analyze stresses within
an object under load or heat for a variety of
materials, or simulating the flow of air across a car
exterior negates the need for a car and wind tunnel.
optimization of a design designs can be easily
modified so that unnecessary material if removed.
(CAD)
CAD
software is used:
to increase the productivity of the designer,
improve the quality of design,
improve communications through documentation,
and to create a database for manufacturing.
CAD output is often in the form of electronic files for
print, machining, or other manufacturing operations.
As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering
drawings, the output of CAD must convey information,
such as materials, processes, dimensions, and
tolerances, according to application-specific
conventions
Types of CAD software
2D CAD Software
Autodesk
was founded
1982 by John Walker,
which led to the 2D
system AutoCAD
Designed to produce
traditional engineering
drawings such a the
orthographic projection
shown opposite
The earliest 2D
computer graphics were
all vector graphics
Early 2D CAD systems
Vector graphics
Vector
graphics is the use of geometrical primitives such

as points, lines, curves, and shapes or polygonsall of
which are based on mathematical expressionsto represent
images in computer graphics.
Vector graphics are based on vectors (also called paths),
which lead through locations called control points or nodes.
Each of these points has a definite position on the x and y
axes of the work plane and determines the direction of the
path; further, each path may be assigned a stroke color,
shape, thickness, and fill.
These properties don't increase the size of vector graphics
files in a substantial manner, as all information resides in
the document's structure, which describes solely how the
vector should be drawn.
Vector graphics can be magnified infinitely without loss of
quality, while pixel-based graphics cannot.
Raster graphics
CAD
Uses for a solid model

database
Wireframe modelling
Wireframe modelling
Surface modeling
Solid modeling
Parametric solid modeling
Parametric Solid Modeling
Advantages and disadvantages of using computer-aided modelling

Advantages
Can
be more accurate than hand-drawn designs - it reduces

human error.
Doesn't require any physical components, so money isn't
wasted on expensive parts
Speeds up production process.
You can save and edit ideas, which makes it easier and
cheaper to modify your design as you go along.
You can choose pre-drawn circuits or system blocks, which
speeds up the process even further.
Disadvantages
The software itself can be expensive so initial costs are
high. There are free software packages though.
Staff need to be trained how to use the software, which also
adds to costs.
Requires a PC.
It doesn't always accurately simulate 'real world' circuits or
ideas, so may not be as effective as a prototyping board.
Data modelling
Data
modeling (or modelling) in software

engineering is the process of creating a data model for
an information system by applying formal data
modeling techniques
Data Models
Conceptual, logical and

physical schemas
Data modeling process
Modeling Methodologies
Data
models represent information areas of interest. While

there are many ways to create data models, according to
Len Silverston (1997) only two modeling methodologies
stand out, top-down and bottom-up:
Bottom-up models or View Integration models are often the
result of a reengineering effort. They usually start with
existing data structures forms, fields on application screens,
or reports. These models are usually physical, applicationspecific, and incomplete from an enterprise perspective.
They may not promote data sharing, especially if they are
built without reference to other parts of the organization.
Top-down logical data models, on the other hand, are
created in an abstract way by getting information from
people who know the subject area. A system may not
implement all the entities in a logical model, but the model
serves as a reference point or template.
Sometimes models are created in a mixture of the two
methods: by considering the data needs and structure of an
application and by consistently referencing a subject-area
Virtual prototyping
Virtual
prototyping is a method in the process of

product development. It involves using computeraided design (CAD), computer-automated design
(CAutoD) and computer-aided engineering (CAE)
software to validate a design before committing to
making a physical prototype. This is done by creating
(usually 3D) computer generated geometrical shapes
(parts) and either combining them into an "assembly"
and testing different mechanical motions, fit and
function. The assembly or individual parts could be
opened in CAE software to simulate the behavior of
the product in the real world.
Digital humans: motion capture

Motion
capture (Mo-cap for short) is the process of

recording the movement of objects or people. It is used
in military, entertainment, sports, medical applications,
and for validation of computer vision and robotics.
In filmmaking and video game development, it refers to
recording actions of human actors, and using that
information to animate digital character models in 2D or
3D computer animation.
When it includes face and fingers or captures subtle
expressions, it is often referred to as performance
capture.
In many fields, motion capture is sometimes called
motion tracking, but in filmmaking and games, motion
tracking usually refers more to match moving.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnrKKjaVxCA

advantages
Motion
capture offers several advantages over traditional computer

animation of a 3D model:
More rapid, even real time results can be obtained. In entertainment
applications this can reduce the costs of keyframe-based animation.
The Hand Over technique is an example of this.
The amount of work does not vary with the complexity or length of
the performance to the same degree as when using traditional
techniques. This allows many tests to be done with different styles or
deliveries, giving a different personality only limited by the talent of
the actor.
Complex movement and realistic physical interactions such as
secondary motions, weight and exchange of forces can be easily
recreated in a physically accurate manner.
The amount of animation data that can be produced within a given
time is extremely large when compared to traditional animation
techniques. This contributes to both cost effectiveness and meeting
production deadlines.
Potential for free software and third party solutions reducing its costs.

disadvantages
Specific
hardware and special software programs are required to

obtain and process the data.
The cost of the software, equipment and personnel required can
be prohibitive for small productions.
The capture system may have specific requirements for the space
it is operated in, depending on camera field of view or magnetic
distortion.
When problems occur, it is easier to reshoot the scene rather than
trying to manipulate the data. Only a few systems allow real time
viewing of the data to decide if the take needs to be redone.
The initial results are limited to what can be performed within the
capture volume without extra editing of the data.
Movement that does not follow the laws of physics cannot be
captured.
Traditional animation techniques, such as added emphasis on
anticipation and follow through, secondary motion or
manipulating the shape of the character, as with squash and
stretch animation techniques, must be added later.
If the computer model has different proportions from the capture
Digital humans: Haptic

technology
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6wJ9Aakddng
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=or99iYNl1QY
Haptic
technology, haptics, or kinesthetic communication, is

tactile feedback technology which recreates the sense of touch by
applying forces, vibrations, or motions to the user. This mechanical
stimulation can be used to assist in the creation of virtual objects in a
computer simulation, to control such virtual objects, and to enhance
the remote control of machines and devices (telerobotics). It has
been described as "doing for the sense of touch what computer
graphics does for vision". Haptic devices may incorporate tactile
sensors that measure forces exerted by the user on the interface.
Haptic technology has made it possible to investigate how the
human sense of touch works by allowing the creation of carefully
controlled haptic virtual objects. These objects are used to
systematically probe human haptic capabilities, which would
otherwise be difficult to achieve. These research tools contribute to
the understanding of how touch and its underlying brain functions
work.
The word haptic, from the Greek: (haptikos), means
"pertaining to the sense of touch" and comes from the Greek verb
Digital humans: virtual reality (VR)

Virtual
Reality (VR), which can be referred to as

immersive multimedia or computer-simulated life,
replicates an environment that simulates physical
presence in places in the real world or imagined
worlds. Virtual reality can recreate sensory
experiences, which include virtual taste, sight, smell,
sound, and touch.
Finite element analysis (FEA)

Finite
Element Analysis (FEA) is a computer based

method of simulating/analyzing the behavior of
engineering structures and components under a variety
of conditions.
It is an advanced engineering tool that is used in design
and to augment/replace experimental testing.
FEA is widely accepted in almost all engineering
disciplines. The method is often used as an alternative to
the experimental test method set out in many standards.
The technique is based on the premise that an
approximate solution to any complex engineering
problem can be reached by subdividing the
structure/component into smaller more manageable
(finite) elements.
The Finite Element Model (FEM) is analysed with an
inherently greater precision than would otherwise be
possible using conventional hand analyses, since the
Finite element analysis (FEA)
How
is new knowledge acquired through the

use of digital models?
Does technology allow us to gain
knowledge that our human senses are unable
to gain?
International Mindedness
Improved
communication technologies allow

designs to be developed collaboratively by
different global teams on a 24/7 basis.
3.5 RAPID
PROTOTYPING
Essential idea: Rapid prototyping is the production of a
physical model of a design using three-dimensional CAD data.
Rapid Prototyping
The
growth in computing power has had a major

impact on modelling with computer-aided
manufacture. Rapid software and hardware
developments allow new opportunities and exciting
new technologies to create dynamic modelling of evergreater complexity. Models can be simulated by
designers using software, tested and trialed virtually
before sending to a variety of peripheral machines for
prototype manufacture in an ever-increasing range of
materials. The ease of sending this digital data across
continents for manufacture of prototypes has major
implications for data and design protection.
Stereolithography
Stereolithography
(SLA or SL; also known as optical

fabrication, photo-solidification, solid free-form
fabrication, solid imaging and Resin printing) is an
additive manufacturing or 3D printing technology used
for producing models, prototypes, patterns, and
production parts up one layer at a time by curing a
photo-reactive resin with a UV laser or another similar
power source.
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zP1em1dg5k&feature=p
layer_embedded
Stereolithography
Stereolithography
Stereolithography
is an additive manufacturing process which employs a

vat of liquid ultraviolet curable photopolymer "resin" and an ultraviolet
laser to build parts' layers one at a time. For each layer, the laser beam
traces a cross-section of the part pattern on the surface of the liquid resin.
Exposure to the ultraviolet laser light cures and solidifies the pattern
traced on the resin and joins it to the layer below.
After the pattern has been traced, the SLA's elevator platform descends
by a distance equal to the thickness of a single layer, typically 0.05mm to
0.15mm (0.002in to 0.006in). Then, a resin-filled blade sweeps across
the cross section of the part, re-coating it with fresh material. On this new
liquid surface, the subsequent layer pattern is traced, joining the previous
layer. A complete 3-D part is formed by this process. After being built,
parts are immersed in a chemical bath in order to be cleaned of excess
resin and are subsequently cured in an ultraviolet oven.
Stereolithography requires the use of supporting structures which serve to
attach the part to the elevator platform, prevent deflection due to gravity
and hold the cross sections in place so that they resist lateral pressure
from the re-coater blade. Supports are generated automatically during the
preparation of 3D Computer Aided Design models for use on the
stereolithography machine, although they may be manipulated manually.
Supports must be removed from the finished product manually, unlike in
other, less costly, rapid prototyping technologies.
Stereolithography advantages
and disadvantages
One
of the advantages of stereolithography is its speed;

functional parts can be manufactured within a day. The length of
time it takes to produce one particular part depends on the size
and complexity of the project and can last from a few hours to
more than a day. Most stereolithography machines can produce
parts with a maximum size of approximately 505060cm
(202024in) and some, such as the Mammoth
stereolithography machine (which has a build platform of
2107080cm), are capable of producing single parts of more
than 2 m in length. Prototypes made by stereolithography are
strong enough to be machined and can be used as master
patterns for injection molding, thermoforming, blow molding, and
various metal casting processes.
Although stereolithography can produce a wide variety of shapes,
it has often been expensive; the cost of photo-curable resin has
long ranged from $80 to $210 per liter, and the cost of
stereolithography machines has ranged from $100,000 to more
than $500,000.
Laminated object manufacturing (LOM)

Laminated
object manufacturing (LOM) is a rapid

prototyping system developed by Helisys Inc. (Cubic
Technologies is now the successor organization of
Helisys) In it, layers of adhesive-coated paper, plastic,
or metal laminates are successively glued together
and cut to shape with a knife or laser cutter. Objects
printed with this technique may be additionally
modified by machining or drilling after printing. Typical
layer resolution for this process is defined by the
material feedstock and usually ranges in thickness
from one to a few sheets of copy paper
https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=GUvnz0borAI

The
process is performed as follows:

Sheet is adhered to a substrate with a heated roller.
Laser traces desired dimensions of prototype.
Laser cross hatches non-part area to facilitate waste
removal.
Platform with completed layer moves down out of the
way.
Fresh sheet of material is rolled into position.
Platform downs into new position to receive next layer.
The process is repeated.

Advantages:
Low
cost due to readily available raw material

Paper models have wood like characteristics, and may
be worked and finished accordingly
Dimensional accuracy is slightly less than that of
stereolithography and selective laser sintering but no
milling step is necessary.
Relatively large parts may be made, because no
chemical reaction is necessary
Fused deposition modeling

Fused
deposition modeling (FDM) was developed by S.

Scott Crump in the late 1980s and was
commercialized in 1990 by Stratasys. With the
expiration of the patent on this technology there is
now a large open-source development community, as
well as commercial and DIY variants, which utilize this
type of 3D printer. This has led to two orders of
magnitude price drop since this technology's creation.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WHO6G67GJbM
Fused deposition modeling

FDM
begins with a software process which processes

an STL file (stereolithography file format)
The machine may dispense multiple materials to
achieve different goals
The model or part is produced by extruding small
beads of thermoplastic material to form layers as the
material hardens immediately after extrusion from the
nozzle
The nozzle follows a tool-path controlled by a
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) software
package, and the part is built from the bottom up, one
layer at a time.
Selective laser sintering (SLS)

https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=9E5MfBAV_tA
Selective laser sintering (SLS)

Selective
Laser Sintering (SLS) is an additive manufacturing

(AM) technique that uses a laser as the power source to sinter
powdered material (typically metal), aiming the laser
automatically at points in space defined by a 3D model,
binding the material together to create a solid structure.
It is similar to direct metal laser sintering (DMLS); the two are
instantiations of the same concept but differ in technical
details.
Selective laser melting (SLM) uses a comparable concept, but
in SLM the material is fully melted rather than sintered,
allowing different properties (crystal structure, porosity, and so
on).
SLS (as well as the other mentioned AM techniques) is a
relatively new technology that so far has mainly been used for
rapid prototyping and for low-volume production of component
parts. Production roles are expanding as the commercialization
of AM technology improves.
The future
3D
printing ceramics https://

www.youtube.com/watch?v=r0TQKm5ciY0
3D printing a house https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQ_WqvjJtDw
3D printing food
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MKQlys-z7SM
3D body parts
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AcUVNtdKt2k
Assignment
Drawings
for your product are now due.
Which
ways of knowing do we use to interpret indirect

evidence gathered through the use of technology?
International Mindedness
The
high cost of some new processes does not allow

for their rapid dissemination globally.

Topic 3 Modelling

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Topic 3: Modelling

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

An Example - Atlas Touring

3.1 CONCEPTUAL MODELLING

use conceptual modelling to assist their

The role of conceptual modelling in design

modeling is the activity of describing major

Brainstorming an example for

Same example- more organized

Same example- more organized

combines a relaxed, informal approach to

listing works as a decompositional approach,

Hexagona Good grip

elaboration of attribute listing

Morphological Synthesis example

that you want to create a new lamp.

Morphological Synthesis example Light Size Style Finish

Generat Colore Variabl

Morphological Synthesis example

the construction of a model, how can we

3.2 Graphical modelling

models can take many forms, but their

Ideas may evolve

spontaneous representation of ideas on paper

proverbial sketch on the back of an envelope.

sketching requires few tools: just a pencil

The importance of annotating

accompany drawings to improve the

The purpose of two- and threedimensional (2D and 3D)

use a range of freehand drawings in the

sketches are made up of a series of arcs and lines,

circle can be sketched using the following steps.

circle can also be sketched using the

Freehand sketching - exercise

the middle of a sheet of paper draw a sketch of the subject

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Use shading, or different colours to distinguish the three main planes

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Use shading, or different colors to distinguish the three main planes

Pictorials Isometric Projection

Use shading, or different colors to distinguish the three main planes

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

If you do not shorten oblique

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Oblique Pictorial Sketches

Comparison of isometric and

Perspective drawing part 2