Describing Research Activities

Phenomenology
Case Studies
Field Studies
Archival Study
Qualitative Research

Nonexperimental approaches are used in

situations in which an experiment is not practical
or desirable. They are also used to study
behaviors in natural settings to explore unique or
rare occurrences or to sample personal
information.

Research is high in internal validity if we can

demonstrate with certainty that the changes in
behavior observed across treatment conditions
were actually caused by differences in treatments.
External validity is generalizability or applicability
to people and situations outside the research
setting.

Two Major Dimensions Research can be Describe

1. The degree of Manipulation of Antecedent

Conditions
Experiments are typically high in degree of
manipulation; nonexperiments are usually low.

Describing Research Activities

Two Major Dimensions Research can be Describe

2. The degree of Imposition of Units is an

equally important dimension. This term refers to
the extent to which the researcher constraints, or
limits, the responses a subject may contribute to
the data.

Describing Research Activities

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

1. Phenomenology is the description of an

individuals immediate experience. Rather than
looking at behaviors and events that are external
to us, we begin with personal experience as a
source of data. It falls near the low-low end.
Antecedents are not manipulated, and data may
consist of any immediate experience; no
constraints are imposed.

Describing Research Activities

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

1. Phenomenology cannot be used to

understand the causes of behavior. Like other
nonexperimental designs, it describes, but cannot
explain, behavior.

Describing Research Activities

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

2. Case Studies involves no manipulation of

antecedent conditions. It is used to study
individuals. It is a descriptive record of a single
individuals experiences, or behaviors, or both ,
kept by an outside observer.
There are few restrictions on the type of data to
be included in a case study. Many case studies
would be expected to fall in the low-low portion.

Describing Research Activities

Kazdin (2003) has argued that case studies serve

Five Major Purposes:

First, we may use a case study to make

inferences about the impact of life events, the
origin of disorders, or developmental processes.
Second, as we understand the impact of such
events more fully, we may be able to devise more
appropriate treatment techniques, as well as
preventive measures.

Case Studies

Kazdin (2003) has argued that case studies serve

Five Major Purposes:

Third, the case study is a perfect forum for

investigating unique cases or rare problems.
Fourth, case studies can provide evidence that
casts doubt on theories or generally accepted
practices.
Fifth, case studies are sometimes a dramatic way
to illustrate abstract concepts.

Case Studies

Deviant Case Analysis

Cases of deviant and normal individuals are
compared for significant differences. These
differences may have important implications for
the etiology, or origin, of the psychopathology in
question.

Case Studies

Retrospective Data are data collected on the

present that are based on recollections of past
events.

Case Studies

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

3. Field studies are nonexperimental approaches

used in the field or in real-life settings.
Antecedent conditions are not manipulated in field
studies, but the degree of constraint on
responses varies considerably from study to
study.

Describing Research Activities

Naturalistic Observation Studies is the

technique of observing behaviors as they occur
spontaneously in natural settings. This approach
has been used extensively in animal behavior
research, called ethology, to study behavior in the
wild as well as in captivity.

Field studies

In systematic observation, the researcher uses a

prearranged strategy for recording observations
in which each observation is recorded using
specific rules or guidelines so that observations
are more objective.

Field studies

Tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or

responses when they are aware of an observers
presence, is known as reactivity.
Observers should remain as unobtrusive
(inconspicuous) as possible when they conduct
naturalistic observations.

Field studies

Participant-Observer Studies
Here the researcher actually becomes part of the
group being studied. The researcher may interact
with subjects as well as observe them to obtain
information.

Field studies

Note that a field study is not to be confused with a

field experiment. A field experiment is a true
experiment that in conducted outside the
laboratory.

Field studies

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

4. Archival Study is a descriptive research

method in which already existing records are
reexamined for a new purpose.

Describing Research Activities

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

5. Qualitative Research relies on words rather

than numbers for the data being collected; it
focuses on self-reports, personal narratives and
expression of ideas, memories, feelings and
thought.

Describing Research Activities

A paradigm is the set of attitudes, values, beliefs,

methods and procedures that are generally
accepted within a particular discipline at a certain
point in time.

Qualitative Research

Five Common Nonexperimetal Approaches Used by

Psychologists

5. Qualitative Research is used to study

phenomena that are contextual, meaning they
cannot be understood without the context in which
they appear. These phenomena deserve to be
studied within a rich background or unique
environment.

Describing Research Activities

Contemporary phenomenology, also called

empirical phenomenology, might rely on the
researchers own experiences or on experiential
data provided by other sources.

Qualitative Research