Lecture # 5

ADVANCE TOPICS IN
ENERGY CONVERSION

Dr. Muzaffar Ali

OVERVIEW OF NUCLEAR
POWER

Nuclear energy consumption by region

Million tonnes oil equivalent

10

11

12

13

energy availability factor

14

NUCLEAR PHYSICS

Nuclear Binding Energy

We convert mass
into energy by
breaking large
atoms (usually
Uranium) into
smaller atoms.
Note the increases
in binding energy
per nucleon.

Nuclear Binding Energy 2

Maximum
Stability

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear Chain Reaction

Fission Reaction
A classic example of a
fission reaction is that
of U-235:
U-235 + 1 Neutron
2 Neutrons
+ Kr-92 + Ba-142 + E
In this example, a stray
neutron strikes an
atom of U235. It
absorbs the neutron
and becomes an
unstable atom of U236. It then undergoes
fission. These neutrons
can strike other U-235

Uranium-238 Decay
Series

Uranium

Most common isotope is uranium-238

Note

Class exercise: write the symbol for U-238

U-235 (NOT U-238) is the fuel for most nuclear power plants
worldwide

U-238 decomposes via a series of spontaneous nuclear

reactions

Ultimate product is lead-206

Produces a series of radioactive intermediates in its decay series
One of them is famous: radon-222

Uranium-238 Decay
Series

The Nuclear Fission

Reaction

Fission occurs when uranium atom is split into

atoms of lesser atomic weight plus emitted
Gamma
Ray
energy
Clumping

235

236

89

Kr

Fission

Neutron

Neutron
Neutron
Mass no., nucleons=
protons + neutrons

235

U143

92

Protons
At. No., Z

Neutrons

n = 1.00867
89
Kr = 88.91660
144
Ba = 143.92000
235
U= 235.04394
236
U = 236.05261

Gamma
Ray

Gamma
Ray

144

Ba

n + 23592U143 23692U144 14456Ba88 + 89Kr53 + 3n + 176.9 MeV

36

100128

Fusion Reactions
A classic example of a
fusion reaction is that
of deuterium (heavy
hydrogen) and tritium
which is converted to
Helium and release
energy.
p+p
He
+ n + .42 MeV

NUCLEAR FUEL

Uranium

Introduction to nuclear
power

Uranium was discovered in 1789 by Martin

Klaproth, a German chemist, and named after
the planet Uranus.
The science of atomic radiation, atomic change
and nuclear fission was developed from 1895 to
1945, much of it in the last six of those years
Over 1939-45, most development was focused
on the atomic bomb
From 1945 attention was given to harnessing
this energy in a controlled fashion for naval
propulsion and for making electricity
Since 1956 the prime focus has been on the
technological evolution of reliable nuclear power
plants.

U Basics

Chemical symbol for

Uranium = U
Occurs in most rocksin
concentrations of 2 to 4
parts per million
As common in the
Earth's crust as tin,
tungsten and
molybdenum
Occurs in seawater

Natural Uranium

235

U only fissile nuclide only 1 atom of 235U in 140 atoms of 238U

Creating Uranium Fuel

50,000 tonnes of ore from mine

200 tonnes of uranium oxide
concentrate (U3O8)

Milling process at mine

25 tonnes of enriched uranium oxide

uranium oxide is converted into a gas,

uranium hexafluoride (UF6),
Every tonne of uranium hexafluoride
separated into about 130 kg of enriched UF6
(about 3.5% U-235) and 870 kg of 'depleted'
UF6 (mostly U-238).
The enriched UF6 is finally converted into
uranium dioxide (UO2) powder
Pressed into fuel pellets which are encased in

U Basics: Insane Energy

Density

U Basics: Two Major Isotopes

U-238
Most abundant
99.270%
Not fissile
U-235
0.725%
Fissile

U Mining
Two ways to mine, depending on deposit
1. Conventional, which requires a separate mill
facility
. Open pit
. Underground
2. In-situ recovery (ISR) which integrates refining in
process

Conventional Mining: Open

Pit

Ore near surface

Generally <100 m
deep
Soil, waste rock
removed
Pit walls mined in
series of benches
Broken rock hauled by
trucks to mill

Rio Tintos Rssing mine,

Namibia

Conventional Mining:
Underground

Deposit is > 100 m

below surface
High grade, big
pounds
Vertical shafts
(declines) dug to
ore depth
Horizontal tunnels,
ramps, chambers to
access ore

Camecos McArthur River,

Saskatchewan, Canada

Conventional Mining:
Underground

McArthur River mine

uses raisebore
method

Revolving reaming head

pulled up through the
orebody
Ore falls through the
raise

Cigar Lake will use a

jet-bore method

Highly pressurized
water in tunnels
beneath deposit
Spray out cavities in

Main McArthur River head frame

houses the hoist over the main shaft

Conventional Mining: Milling

Ore crushed, mixed

with H2O
Slurry treated with
sulfuric acid in large
tanks to separate U
from other minerals
U in solution form is
then separated from
other minerals that
remain solid

Energy Fuels White Mesa Mill, Utah,

U.S.

Conventional Mining: Milling

U-rich solution
purified through
solvent extraction
process
Returned to solid form
through chemical
precipitation
Dried U=U3O8, or
yellowcake
Energy Fuels White Mesa Mill, Utah, U.S.

Mining: In-Situ Recovery

Solutions are pumped underground to
dissolve, collect U using a system of
wells
Lixivant=solution of water, oxygen
and carbon dioxide or baking soda
Surrounding rock stays in place
Dissolved U pumped to surface, then
circulated through a processing plant
for extraction
Through a process of ion exchange
and elution (the same principles at
work in a home water softener), the
uranium is removed from the water
and then packagedfor sale in a
crystalline form known as yellowcake.
ISR does not affect drinking water
availability because the naturally
occurring uranium in a commercial
ore body has already rendered its

Conversion
Two-step chemical
process
1. U3O8 refined to
remove impurities
and change its
chemical form to
UO3
2. UO3 combined
with fluorine
compounds to
create uranium

Truck moves cylinder during

conversion process
Source: Cameco

Conversion

UF6=only U compound that can exist as a gas, a

liquid or a solid
Key for enrichment
Steel transport cylinders filled with liquid UF6 at
conversion facility
UF6 solidifies inside cylinders for shipment to
enrichment plants

www.nuclearconnect.org

Conversion Process: UO3

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

Conversion Process: UF6

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

Yellow Cake

Final Product of Milling Step 70 to 80 % uranium

Uranium Mined and Refined

Uranium Formations in Pakistan:

More than 1000 sites, only following four are mined:
1. Chinji Formations
2. Nagri Formations
3. Dhok Pathan Formations
4. Soan Formations
Now the general information about these formations of uranium
deposits in Pakistan are as followed:
Chinji Formation: it comprises of Maroon Reddish brown color
that is basically composed of Shale and Sand Stone horizon and
their thickness ranges from 1160m 1400m
Nagri Formations:It comprises of massive Sand Stone and
somehow Shale as rare in thin patches, it is mostly in dark color and
its thickness is 1050m - 2075m
Dhok Pathan Formations: This formation is formed due to the
cycling of deposition of Shale and Sand Stone and its thickness is
950m 1200m
Soan
Formation: It is composed of Sand Stone, silt stone, Shale
49
horizon and Conglomerates and its thickness in 300m 500m

Uranium Fuel Cycle

NUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE divided into two parts:

FRONT-END - includes MINING of Uranium Ore,

EXTRACTION, CONVERSION to "Hex", ENRICHMENT, and
FUEL FABRICATION.
BACK-END - includes TRANSPORTATION of SPENT FUEL,
STORAGE, REPROCESSING, and DISPOSAL.

NOTE:
1.

Transportation of Fabricated Fuel elements has negligible cost

as little or no screening is necessary.

2.

Special Provisions are needed for transport of spent fuel for

both cycles.

3.

For both ONCE-THROUGH and REPROCESSING CYCLES,

the FRONT-END is identical. The differences are only evident
at the BACK- END.

Ends of the Nuclear Fuel

Cycle

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Uranium Mining and Milling

Conversion, Enrichment and

Fuel Fabrication

Enrichment

A number of enrichment processes have been

demonstrated in the laboratory
Only two, the gaseous diffusion process and the
centrifuge process, are operating on a
commercial scale
In both of these, UF6 gas is used as the feed
material
Molecules of UF6 with U-235 atoms are about
one percent lighter than the rest, and this
difference in mass is the basis of both processes
Large commercial enrichment plants are in
operation in France, Germany, Netherlands, UK,
USA, and Russia, with smaller plants elsewhere

Enrichment: Three
Technologies

2 gaseous diffusion
plants shutdown
US
France
Laser technology
licensed in US, but not
yet deployed

Centrifuge cascade hall

Source: Urenco

Enrichment

LWRs use 3%-5% U-235

Natural U contains only 0.7% U-235
Centrifugal force pushes heavier U-238 particles
to the outside of centrifuge
Lighter U-235 particles concentrate at center
Centrifuges connected together in a cascade
Concentration of U-235 increases as UF6 passes
through successive cascades

Enrichment: Cascades

Source: The Nuclear Fuel Cycle, Dr Kevin McCoy, AREVA Inc., 2012

After Enrichment
Two streams of UF6 created:
1.
Elevated concentration of U-235 for reactor fuel
2.
Depleted UF6 (DUF6) tails

Stored in air-tight cylinders at enrichment

facilities

Mildly radioactive

Fluorine components need to be managed

Enrichment: UF6 Feed

Container

Enrichment: Centrifuge
Process

vacuum tubes, each

containing a rotor one to
two metres long and 15-20
cm diameter.
rotors are spun rapidly, at
50,000 to 70,000 rpm
heavier molecules with U238 increase in
concentration towards the
cylinder's outer wall
there is a corresponding
increase in concentration
of U-235 molecules near
the centre.
enriched gas forms part of
the feed for the next
stages, depleted UF6 gas
goes back to the previous
stage (cascade)

Enrichment: Centrifuge
Process

Enrichment: Gaseous Diffusion

Process

involves forcing UF6 under pressure through a

porous membranes
as 235U molecules are lighter than the 238U
molecules they move faster and have a slightly
better chance of passing through the pores in the
membrane
the UF6 which diffuses through the membrane is
thus slightly enriched, while the gas which did not
pass through is depleted in 235U
this process is repeated many times in a series of
diffusion stages called a cascade
enriched UF6 is withdrawn from one end of the
cascade and depleted UF6 is removed at the other
end
the gas must be processed through some 1400

Enrichment: Gaseous Diffusion

Process

The large Tricastin enrichment plant in France (beyond cooling towers).

The nuclear reactors in the foreground provide power for it.

Conversion, Enrichment and

Fuel Fabrication

Conversion and Nuclear Fuel

Fabrication

UF6, in solid form in containers, is heated to

gaseous form, and the UF6 gas is chemically
processed to form uranium dioxide (UO2) powder
this powder is then pressed into pellets, sintered
into ceramic form (fuel pellets)
pellets are then loaded into Zircaloy tubes that
are afterwards hermetically closed (fuel rods)
rods are constructed into fuel assemblies
fuel assemblies are made with different
dimensions and number of fuel rods, depending
on the type reactor

Fabrication: Pellets

Enriched UF6 converted back into UO2 powder

UO2 powder processed into pellets
Length: 10-13 mm
Diameter: 8-13.5 mm
Sintered at 1,600-1,700C
Ground, finished, inserted into fuel assemblies

Fabrication: Pellets

Source: Royal Society of Chemistry

Fabrication: Fuel Assembly

Pellets packed in thin tubes called fuel rods

made of zirconium alloy
Over 250 rods grouped together into a
bundle called a fuel assembly
Fuel assembly includes control rods,
spaces for neutron rods or instrumentation

Fabrication: Fuel Assembly

PWR fuel assembly

Source: Cameco

Fabrication: Fuel Assembly

PWRs
150-256 assemblies in core
12-20 million U fuel pellets
BWRs
400-800 assemblies
31-63 million pellets

UO2, Pellets and Fuel

Assembly

Fuel Rods

Fuel Assembly

Nuclear Fuel Pellet

Pellets Encased in Ceramic

Pellets Inserted into Rods

The pellets are
inserted into long
metal tubes called fuel
rods. The fuel rods are
made of zirconium
which resists heat,
radiation and
corrosion. The rods are
bundled together into
fuel assemblies, which
are placed in the
reactor.

MOX Fuel

MOX Fuel

Plutonium, made in power reactors and from

dismantled nuclear weapons, is a valuable energy
source when integrated in the nuclear fuel cycle
Over one third of the energy produced in most nuclear
power plants comes from plutonium. It is created there
as a by-product.
'MOX' is derived from 'mixed oxides', and refers to
reactor fuel made from a mixture of plutonium and
uranium oxide
For use in a light water reactor, the proportion of
plutonium is about 5%. This is a similar fissile content
as low enriched uranium fuel
MOX is formed into ceramic fuel pellets, extremely
stable and durable, and which are sealed in metal
(usually zirconium) tubes, which in turn are assembled
into fuel elements
In most cases a part of the reactor core can be loaded
with MOX fuel elements without engineering or

MOX Fuel

Decommissioning
of reactor

Fuel assemblies

Enrichment
Fuel fabrication
of UF6

Conversion
of U3O8
to UF6

Reactor

(conversion of enriched UF6

to UO to UO2 and fabrication
Temporary storage of
of fuel assemblies)
spent fuel assemblies
underwater or in dry
Uranium-235 as UF6
casks
Plutonium-239 as
Spent
fuel
PuO2

reprocessing

Low-level radiation
with long half-life

Open fuel cycle today

Recycling of nuclear fuel

Geologic
disposal of
moderate- and
high-level
radioactive
wastes

Fig. 15-19, p. 389

NUCLEAR POWER PLANTS

Nuclear Power Plant

Boiling Water
Reactor (BWR)
The Pressurized Water
Reactor (PWR)

Nuclear Power Plant

Nuclear PP Cooling Tower

Core of Nuclear Reactor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reactor

Nuclear PP Control Room

http://www.howstuffworks.com/nuclear-power.htm/printab

Idea of a Nuclear Power

Plant
Steam

Boiling water

Spinning
turbine blades
and generator

Nuclear Heat
Steam

Steam
produced

Generator
Turbine
Electricity

Heat

Nuclear Power Plants

Work best at constant power

Power output range of 40 to 2000 MW

Excellent for baseload power

Current designs are 600 to1200 MW

441 licensed plants operating in 31

countries
Produce about 17% of global electrical
energy

Elements in the Nuclear

Reactor

Fuel Rods

Contain the fissionable material

Eventually are spent and must be removed

Material: uranium oxide (usually enriched with U-235)

Absorb all the neutrons

Cadmium, silver, indium rods all used

Used to control power output

Or for emergency shutdown

Moderator (Primary Coolant)

Handling and long-term storage is the biggest safety/environmental

problem with nuclear fission. Hasnt been solved to everyones
satisfaction.

Control Rods

Also contain a built-in neutron source as initiator

Usually Be-9 is used; alpha particles cause neutron release

Usually an aqueous solution of boric acid

Secondary Coolant

Powers the steam generator (ie, the heat engine)

The Moderator

Absorbs energy from the fast neutrons

The moderator heats up
The neutrons become thermal neutrons

Two roles
Controls neutron energy
Transfer energy to secondary coolant

Temperature feedback controls generation ratio

Energy of neutrons affects generation ratio
Less energy = more effective at causing fission
reactions
Negative feedback mechanism: as temperature increases
Neutron energy increases
Generation ratio decreases
Ultimately generation ratio magically settles to exactly 1

Controlling Chain Reaction

Plant operators can control the chain reaction.
Long rods are inserted among the fuel
assemblies. These "control rods" are made to
absorb neutrons, so the neutrons can no longer
hit atoms and make them split. To speed up the
chain reaction, plant operators withdraw the
control rods, either partially or fully. To slow it,
they insert the control rods.

93

Controlling Chain Reaction

Fuel
Assemblies
Control rods

Withdraw control rods,

reaction increases

Insert control rods,

reaction decreases

Types of Reactors

Major Reactor Categories:

Light Water Reactors (LWR) use H 2O

Heavy Water Reactors (HWR) use D 2O or deuterium oxide

Canadian CANDU (Canadian deuterium oxide) reactor
Boiling water reactors produce steam at top of the core area
Pressurized water reactors keep water from boiling
Mixed oxide (MOX) reactors contain both plutonium and
uranium oxides (make from old warheads)
Breeder reactors produce additional radioactive fuel that may
be used in conventional reactors (recyclable?)
Ft. Vrain CO HTG reactor shut down and converted to a
natural gas plant
Fusion Reactors (based upon hydrogen) 2H 2 into helium, 1He4

Cold Fusion (Univ. of Utah mistake or worse?) could not be

replicated by anyone!

Boiling Water Reactor

Boiling Water Reactor

(BWR)
1.
2.

3.

4.

Reactor core creates heat

Steam-water mixture is produced when
very pure water (reactor coolant) moves
upward through the core absorbing heat
The steam-water mixture leaves the top
of the core and enters the two stages of
moisture
separation
where
water
droplets are removed before the steam is
allowed to enter the steam line
Steam line directs the steam to the main
turbine causing it to turn the turbine
generator, which produces electricity.

7.3.2 Boiling Water Reactors (BWR)

Boiling water reactors have part of the water as steam around the fuel

The water acts as a moderator to slow the neutrons to fission the uranium,
while the steam is less dense and doesnt moderate well

If overheating occurs, the steam pushes the water level lower, slows the
reaction and is protects the reactor

090124

Pressurized Water
Reactor
Steam

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

1.
2.

3.

4.

Reactor core generates heat

Pressurized-water in the primary
coolant loop carries the heat to the
steam generator
Inside the steam generator heat
from the primary coolant loop
vaporizes the water in a secondary
loop producing steam
The steam line directs the steam to
the main turbine causing it to turn
the turbine generator, which

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Water is under high

pressure so it cant
flash into steam
The reaction is
modified entirely by
the control rods

www.nrc.gov
040202

Light Water Reactors

Ordinary, but pure, deionized (noncorrosive)

water is used as a fuel core coolant

Some reactors have used liquid sodium metal

as a coolant with a heat exchanger

The coolant flows around the fuel elements

and carries off the heat

Heat exchangers prevent leakage of the

radioactive water into the steam turbines
The primary side water remains in liquid state
due to high pressure
If the water area vents and goes dry, the core
can melt if the reaction isnt stopped in time
(the China Syndrome)

100125

7.3.4 CANDU Reactor

The Canadian heavy water

(deuterium oxide, DO2) reactor can
use unrefined uranium U238 as fuel
Canada, Argentina, and Pakistan use
this reactor type
This avoids the expense of uranium
enhancement, but deuterium oxide
must be separated from ordinary
water

Deuterium occurs about once in 6500

molecules of water

090124

Mixed Oxide Reactor

090124

http://www.fepc.or.jp/english/nuclear_power/cycle/thermal.ht

7.3.6 Pebble-bed; Breeder

reactor

Pebble-bed reactors use fuel/carbon/ceramic

pellets sized like a billiard ball

The balls can be pushed through pipes into the

reactor on top and removed at the bottom, thus
no shutdowns are required; refueling is continuous

Breeder reactors produce more fissile fuel than

they consume

The US (under Pres. Carters administration)

presently prohibits breeder reactors because of
potential weapons that could be made
President Bush was considering using breeder
reactors; President Obama decided against them
Without breeder reactors, uranium ore may be
depleted in ~50 - 80 years
100201

Fusion Reactors

Hydrogen can be fused into helium yielding more

energy than was required to create the fusion
The Shiva machine (named after the multiplearmed Indian Goddess) has 20 lasers that
simultaneously strike a small plastic shell
containing deuterium oxide to create fusion
Immense amounts of energy fire the 20 lasers
simultaneously to cause a negligible amount of
fusion energy
Remember EROEI, where a high
amount of energy must come out
compared to what went in for the
conversion to be useful, but this
is the reverse so far
090130

New Fission/Fusion Reactor Studied

Compact Fusion Neutron Source

A new fusion-fission hybrid pairs
nuclear fission reactors with a
fusion reactor neutron source to
eliminate virtually all of their
waste and produce clean power,
even with older fission reactor
designs.

Reactor Safety Design

Containment Vessel
1.5-inch thick steel

Shield Building Wall

3 foot thick reinforced concrete

Dry Well Wall

5 foot thick reinforced concrete

Bio Shield
4 foot thick leaded concrete with
1.5-inch thick steel lining inside and
out

Reactor Vessel
4 to 8 inches thick steel

Reactor Fuel
Weir Wall
1.5 foot thick concrete

Reactor Type

Main Countries

Number

Pressurised Water
Reactor (PWR)

US, France,
Japan,
Russia

252

Boiling Water Reactor

(BWR)

US, Japan,
Sweden

Gas-cooled Reactor
(Magnox & AGR)

GWe

Fuel

Coolant

Moderator

235

enriched UO2

water

water

92

83

enriched UO2

water

water

UK

34

13

natural U (metal),
enriched UO2

CO2

graphite

Pressurised Heavy Water

Reactor "CANDU"
(PHWR)

Canada

33

18

natural UO2

heavy
water

heavy water

Light Water Graphite

Reactor (RBMK)

Russia

14

14.6

enriched UO2

water

graphite

Fast Neutron Reactor

(FBR)

Japan, France,
Russia

1.3

PUO2and UO2

liquid
sodiu
m

none

Other

Russia, Japan

0.2

Source: Nuclear
Engineering International
handbook
TOTAL
434
365 1999, but including Pickering A in Canada.

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

Advanced Research Designs

Generation IV Reactors

Gas cooled fast reactor

Lead cooled fast reactor
Molten salt reactor
Sodium-cooled fast reactor
Supercritical water reactor
Very high temperature reactor

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_reacto

Future Technology (Generation

IV)
SCWR

Thermal

Reactor
Efficiency: 45%

GFR

Fast

Reactor
Actinide management
On-site reprocessing

113

Light-Water-Moderated and -Cooled

Nuclear Power Plant with Water
Reactor

Small amounts of
radioactive gases

Uranium
fuel input
(reactor
core)

Control rods
Containment
shell
Heat
Waste
exchanger heat
Turbine
Steam

Generator

Hot
coolant
Pump

Pump

Shielding
Pressure vessel

Coolant
Moderator
Coolant
passage

Periodic removal and storage

of radioactive wastes and
spent fuel assemblies

Pump

Pump

Hot
water
output
Cool
water
input

Useful electrical
energy
25%30%
Waste
heat

Water Condenser
Periodic removal
and storage of
radioactive liquid
wastes

Water source
(river, lake,
ocean)
Fig. 15-17, p. 387

Reactor
in Japan

After 3 or 4 Years in a Reactor, Spent Fuel

Rods Are Removed and Stored in Water

Spent Fuel rods

After about 3-4 years of use, the Fuel rods

become spent-level of fission drops beneath
a certain level

Rods are taken out of reactor stored nearby

in water filled pools or dry casks

Stored until they cool down enough to be

shipped for permanent storage or to be
recycled

These storage facilities are next to the

reactor plants, vulnerable to terrorist attack
or accidents

Spent fuel reprocessing

The spent fuel rods are sent to a facility which
separates plutonium from spent fuel for further use
as a new generation of fuel or as material used to
make atomic weapons.
1.
First the fuel is chopped up, by remote control,
behind heavy lead shielding.
2.
These chopped-up pieces are then dissolved in
boiling nitric acid, releasing radioactive gases in the
process.
3.
The plutonium is separated from the acid solution by
chemical means, leaving large quantities of highlevel radioactive liquid waste and sludge behind.
4.
After it has cooled down for several years, this liquid
waste will have to be solidified for ultimate disposal,
while the separated plutonium is fabricated into
nuclear fuel or nuclear weapons.

RADIATION

Types of Radiation

http://www.uic.com.au/wast.htm

Types of Radiation

Alpha radiation

Beta radiation

Can penetrate into the body

Can be blocked out by a sheet of aluminum foil

Gamma radiation

Cannot penetrate the skin

Blocked out by a sheet of paper
Dangerous in the lung

Can go right through the body

Requires several inches of lead or concrete, or a
yard or so of water, to block it.

Neutron radiation

Normally found only inside a nuclear reactor

Types of Nuclear Radiation

Measuring Radioactivity

Half-Life

The time for a radioactive source to

lose 50% of its radioactivity
For each half-life time period,
radioactivity drops by 50%
1/2;

1/4; 1/8; 1/16; 1/32; 1/64; 1/128;

1/256;
A half-life of 1 year means that
radioactivity drops to <1% of its original
intensity in seven years

Intensity vs. half-life

Intense radiation has a short half life,

so decays more rapidly

The time needed for one-half of the nuclei in a radioisotope to

decay and emit their radiation to form a different isotope
Half-time
emitted
Uranium 235
710 million yrs alpha, gamma
Plutonium 239
24,000 yrs
alpha, gamma
During operation, nuclear power plants produce
radioactive wastes, including some that remain
dangerous for tens of thousands of years

www.bio.miami.edu/beck/esc101/Chapter14&15.ppt

Decay of Radioactive
Isotopes
Some atomic nuclei are
inherently unstable; they decay
to other nuclei (other elements)
while emitting radiation
These radioactive nuclei are
called radionuclides or
radioisotopes.
Radiation is emitted as a rate
unique to each isotope
Characterized by the halflife or natural lifetime
t 1 0.693
2

This rate cannot be

changed by any chemical
transformation

Half-Lives of Some
Radioisotopes

NUCLEAR WASTE

Nuclear Waste

Challenges in the storage of spent

reactor fuel

Waste

Contains radioactive fission products

Can be hazardous for thousands of years
Half-life

of Pu-239 is 24,110 years

Fission products, if released, can build

up in the body and be fatal

Types of Nuclear Waste

High-level radioactive waste (HLW)

Long half-lives of radioisotopes
Requires permanent isolation
Mixed waste because hazardous
chemicals & radioactivity
National risk because the waste could be
extracted and used to make nuclear
weapons
From nuclear power plants
Spent Nuclear Fuel (SNF): radioactive
material remaining in fuel rods after its
used to generate power in nuclear reactor

Types of Nuclear Waste

Low-level radioactive waste

(LLW)

Waste with smaller amounts of radioactive

materials
No spent nuclear fuel
Includes contaminated lab clothing, gloves,
and tools (radioactivity levels are low)

90% of nuclear waste is LLW

not HLW

Options for Nuclear Waste

Almost all nuclear waste is

stored where it was generated

sites are not intended for long-term storage

Outside the US, countries

reprocess their SNF using
breeder reactors

Nuclear reactor that can produce more

fissionable material than it consumes
(recovering Pu-239 from U-235)

Options for Nuclear Waste

Vitrification: spent fuel elements or mixed waste

are encased in ceramic or glass and put in longterm underground repository

Possible site for repository: Yucca Mountains in NV.

Risks & Benefits of Nuclear Power

Risks associated with energy produced by nuclear power

are less than from coal-burning plants.

Risks & Benefits of Nuclear Power

Coal-fired electric
plants

Nuclear plants
(one 1000 MW plant)

(one 1000 MW plant)

releases 4.5 million

tons of CO2
produces 3.5 million ft3
of waste ash/year
releases 300 tons of
SO2 and ~100 tons
NOx/day
releases Uranium and
Thorium from coal

produces 70 ft3 of
HLW/year
no CO2 released
no acidic oxides of
sulfur and nitrogen
released

Handling Nuclear Waste

Waste Reprocessing

Recondition for further use as fuel

Waste Disposal

Temporary storage
Permanent disposal (usually burial)

Nuclear Waste Reprocessing

Separates usable elements (uranium,

plutonium) from spent nuclear
reactor fuels
Usable elements are then reused in a
nuclear reactor
Other waste products (e.g.,
radioactive isotopes) must be
disposed of

Nuclear Waste Disposal

Cooled in a spent fuel pool

Onsite temporary dry storage

10 to 20 years
Until permanent site becomes available

Central permanent buried disposal

Waste Disposal Funding

Funded by power customers

0.1 cent per kWh
About $18 billion collected to date
About $6 billion has been spent

Yucca Mountain, elsewhere

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

http://eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/intro.htm

Decay of Nuclear PP Waste

Spent Fuel Cooling Pool

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

Fuel Rod Storage

Dry Storage Cask

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

Dry Storage On Site

Dry Cask Construction

http://www.nei.org/http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=

Dry Cask Durability

Waste Burial

Immobilize waste in an insoluble matrix

E.g. borosilicate glass, Synroc (or leave them
as uranium oxide fuel pellets - a ceramic)
Seal inside a corrosion-resistant container
Usualy stainless steel
Locate deep underground in stable rock
Site the repository in a remote location.
Most radioactivity decays within 1,000 years
Remaining radioactivity similar to that of the
naturally-occurring uranium ore, though more
concentrated

Yucca Mountain Burial Site

Yucca Mountain, NV

http://www.sandia.gov/tp/SAFE_RAM/WHEN.HTM

Yucca Mountain Cross Section

http://www.nrc.gov/waste/hlw-disposal/design.htm

Entrance to Yucca Mountain

http://www.wnfm.com/New%20files/Yucca%20Mountain%20Pictures.ht

Interior of Yucca Mountain

http://library.thinkquest.org/17940/texts/nuclear_waste_storage/nuclear_waste_storage.h

Yucca Mountain One

Opinion

http://www.claybennett.com/pages/yucca.htm

NUCLEAR SAFETY

Three Mile Island, PA

Three Mile Island Accident

March 28, 1979

Partial core meltdown over 5 days

Main feedwater pumps failed

Backup feedwater system was inoperative
Instrumentation failed; operators unaware
Should region around TMI be evacuated?

No fatalities; little radiation exposure

Cleanup lasted 14 years; cost $975 million
Public confidence shaken

51 US nuclear reactor orders cancelled 198084

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Mile_Island

Chernobyl Accident

April 26, 1986

Pripyat, Ukraine
Catastrophic steam explosion

Destroyed reactor
Plume of radioactive fallout spread far
USSR,

eastern Europe, Scandinavia, UK,

eastern US
Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia hit hardest

56 direct deaths; ~4,000 long-term

deaths
200,000 people evacuated and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_acciden

Chernobyl Accident

http://www.ourtimelines.com/zchern.htm

Causes of Chernobyl

No containment building
Poor reactor design (unsafe)

Operators were careless & violated

plant procedures

Inserting control rods initially increased

reactor energy generation

Switched off many safety systems

Withdrew too many control rods

Causes still in dispute by various

parties

Chernobyl Contamination

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_acciden

Recent US Auto Scrams

http://www.nei.org

Recent US Significant
Events

http://www.nei.org

NUCLEAR POWER
AND THE ENVIRONMENT

US Sources of Clean Energy

The Environment
Over the past 50 years, US Nuclear Plants Have:
Generated 13.7 Trillion Kilowatt-Hours of Electricity
Zero Carbon Depletion & Zero Emissions
Avoiding:
3.1 Billion Metric Tons of Carbon
73.6 Million Tons Sulfur Dioxide
35.6 Million Tons of Nitrogen
Oxides

Greenhouse Gas Production

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

Voluntary CO2 Reductions

http://www.nei.org

Emissions Avoided

http://www.nei.org

Life Cycle Emissions Analysis

Greenhouse gas
emissions
gram equiv
CO2/kWh

SO2 emissions
milligram/k
Wh

NOx emissions
milligram/
kWh

2-48

5-60

3-42

790-1182

700-32321+

700-5273+

18-29

30-663+

2-59

3-30

2-100

Natural gas
(combined
cycle)

389-511

4-15000+

13+-1500

72-164

1-10+

Biomass forestry
waste
combustion

15-101

12-140

701-1950

217-320

Wind

7-124

21-87

14-50

5-35

Solar
photovoltaic

13-731

24-490

16-340

70

12-190

Generation
Option
Hydropower
Coal - modern
plant
Nuclear

NMVOC
milligram
/kWh

Particulate
matter
milligram/
kWh

Emissions Produced by 1 kWh of Electricity Based on Life-Cycle Analysis

http://www.nei.org/index.asp?catnum=2&catid=26

Life-Cycle CO2 Emissions

NUCLEAR POWER
ECONOMICS

Nuclear Operating Performance

Record
Performance
778 Billion kWhrs

Generation
Capacity Factor
CDF
71

71

74

77

76

74

80

85

87

89

90

Nuclear Generating Costs

2002 Dollars
30.3 29.9

Fuel
Capital Improve
O&M
27.3

25.5 25.2

27.2
23.5

21.2 20.5
19.4 18.8

US Nuclear Production Costs

http://www.nei.org

US Production Cost Comparison

http://www.nei.org

US Capacity Factors
(2004)

http://www.nei.org

NUCLEAR POWER
PRO AND CON

Disadvantages of Nuclear Power

Possibly disastrous accidents

Nuclear waste dangerous for thousands of
years
unless reprocessed
Risk of nuclear proliferation associated with
some designs
High capital costs
Long construction periods
largely due to regulatory delays
High maintenance costs
High cost of decommissioning plants
Designs of current plants are all large-scale

Anti-Nuclear Ad

http://perth.indymedia.org/storyuploads/13114/en_4b.jp

Advantages of Nuclear
Power

Substantial base load energy producing capability

No greenhouse gas emissions during operation
Does not produce air pollutants
The quantity of waste produced is small
Small number of major accidents
only one (TMI) in types of plants in common use
Low fuel costs; Large fuel reserves
Ease of transport and stockpiling of fuel
Future designs may be small and modular
For example, SSTAR

Nuclear Energy Institute Ad

THE FUTURE OF
NUCLEAR POWER

Nuclear Units in
Construction

http://www.nei.org

New Nuclear Plants

Inevitable

It is no longer a matter of debate whether there will be

new nuclear plants in the industrys future. Now, the
discussion has shifted to predictions of how many,
where and when.
New nuclear plants and base-load power plants using
new coal technologies are least likely to appear in the
populous and energy-hungry Northeast or in California,
regions that already have significantly higher energy
prices than the Southeast and Midwest
These differences will tend to favor lower energy
prices in the Southeast and Midwest to the
disadvantage of the Northeast and California.
Fitch Ratings Ltd., Wholesale Power Market Update,
March 13, 2006
http://www.nei.org

Future of Nuclear Power

A new growth phase of nuclear power in near

future
2005 Energy Bill: tax incentives for electricity
produced by new nuclear plants
New reactor designs
Expansion in other countries
New fuel technology mixed oxide (MOX)

Pu from nuclear warheads and SNF can be made

into MOX

Still a debate if risks of nuclear power outweigh

those of global warming, acid rain, and nuclear
terrorism.

Both our need for energy and the mass of

G-8 Energy Ministers

G-8 Energy Ministers Call Nuclear Energy Crucial to

Environmentally Sustainable Diversification of Energy
Supply
Ministers proceed from the fact that diversification of the
energy portfolio in terms of energy sources, suppliers and
consumers as well as delivery methods and routes will
reduce energy security risks not only for individual
countries but for the entire international community.
For those countries that wish, wide-scale development of
safe and secure nuclear energy is crucial for long-term
environmentally sustainable diversification of energy
supply
G8 Energy Ministerial Meeting, March 15-16, 2006,
Moscow
http://www.nei.org/documents/G-8_Statement_3-2106.pdf

Greenpeace Founder for NP

Greenpeace Founder Patrick Moore Speaks in

Favor of Nuclear Energy at U.N. Climate
Change Conference
There is now a great deal of scientific evidence
showing nuclear power to be an environmentally
sound and safe choice, Moore has said, adding
that calls to phase out both coal and nuclear
power worldwide are unrealistic. There are simply
not enough available forms of alternative energy
to replace both of them together. Given a choice
between nuclear on the one hand and coal, oil and
natural gas on the other, nuclear energy is by far
the best option, as it emits neither CO2 nor any
other air pollutants.

http://www.nei.org

EXTRA SLIDES

Nuclear Binding Energy

Fission vs. Fusion

http://encarta.msn.com

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_fusion

Tokamak Fusion Design

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Tokamak_fields_lg.pn

JET Tokamak

Nuclear PP Schematic

http://www.nucleartourist.com/frconten.htm

Nuclear PP Cutaway

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/teachers/nuc-power-plant.ht

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

Boiling Water Reactor

(BWR)

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/bwr.ht

Latest US Design

Next Generation Reactors

Design Highlights
1,400 MWe Plant With Simplified
Systems
Passive Safety Features
Overall Schedule
Licensing Process Started 2002
Regulatory Approval Expected 2006
Key Benefits
Faster Construction, Lower Costs
Improved Safety and Security
Improved O&M Costs

ESBWR

ESBWR Can Meet U.S. Owners New Needs

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

http://www.uic.com.au/opinion6.htm

http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/nuclear/page/nuc_reactors/pwr.ht

THANKS