Combustion in jet engines and gas turbines

Options ENERG and DRIVE - master SMA

And combustion emissions (COMBU)

alain.maiboom@ec-nantes.fr
xavier.tauzia@ec-nantes.fr

Course Outline

Background and early development

First design elements
inlet diffuser
Staged combustion
the combustion efficiency
Fuel injection
Emissions reduction

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

History: first developments

English side: F. Whittle

Flow against the tide :

tubular combustion chambers (10)
placed around the turbine (short
turbojet)

pressurized fuel fed into the chamber

via the vaporizing tube through the
flame zone
thermal expansion problem / cracking
of tubes
delicate control of the fuel flow

First model of tubular combustion chamber, invented

by the British Frank Whittle

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

History: first developments

English side: F. Whittle

In a second version, spraying tubes

replaced by an injector whose internal
hydraulic ensures good fuel jet spray
(swirl + Pressure)

Flowsprimary air entering the room

through large swirlers ( "swirl vanes")
>> Toroidal flow ensuring a better fuelair mixture

secondary air provided by pipes

( "pipe stub") placed downstream +
holes in the inner wall
>> more complete combustion + T
down (dilution)
High pressure drop (against the grain)

Evolution of the tubular combustor

Whittle

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

History: first developments

English side: F. Whittle

British Prime flying a plane with a jet engine May 15, 1941

First E.28 / 39 prototype W4041 / G

The engine W2 / 700 that flew on Gloster

E28 / 39 (the first British plane with a jet
engine) and the Gloster Meteor
(Rear view)

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

History: first developments

English side: Metrovick

axial machine (reducing pressure

drop)

Introduction of fuel against the current

report no air to promote mixing with air
and evaporation (primary zone)

secondary air supply and dilution air

through air nozzles ( "sandwich
scoops")
major components immersed directly
in the flame
Carbon deposition on the nozzle of the
injector

annular combustor Metrovick

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

History: first developments

German side Jumo 004

First turbojet axial flow

Composed of 6 tubular combustion

chambers

Internal hydraulic injector which

ensures good fuel atomization spray
(swirl + Pressure up to 52 bar)

primary air pass by swirlers

(Quasi stoichiometric primary
combustion)

Dilution air brought by pipes ( "pipe

stub")

Sectional view of the Jumo 004

tubular combustion chamber Jumo 004

Messerschmitt ME 262
powered by two Jumo 004

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

History: first developments

German side: BMW 003

Annular combustion chamber

axial flow

16 equally distributed fuel injectors

primary air passes through a deflector

secondary air supplied through a

mixer providing a good mix between
the flue gas and secondary air
( "sandwich scoops")

BMW 003 annular combustion chamber

Heinkel HE 162 1 powered by BMW 003

Sectional view of the BMW 003

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

History: first developments

American side: J33, J35, J47 (GE)

Tubular combustion chamber

axial flow

primary air supplied near the nozzle of

the injector

secondary air supplied through

numerous holes in the wall
simpler design

fuel injector and primary air inlets at the

entrance to the tubular combustion
chamber of the J35

tubular combustion chamber J33

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

Constraints associated with combustion in a turbojet engine and a gas turbine (1/2):

Combustion efficiency the nearest possible to 100%

> Limitation unburned, releasing all the chemical energy contained in the fuel

easy and gentle ignition

> For a jet engine, the ignition must be done both on the ground (low pressure) and at
altitude after a stop (low temperature and pressure)

stable operating area the widest possible

> Wide pressure range, temperature, air humidity, air-fuel ratios

Low pressure drop

> Performance turbojet

distribution of temperature of the combustion chamber outlet gas as homogeneous as

possible in order to prevent the existence of hot spots on the blades of the turbine

Low emissions (Unburned, CO, NOx, particulates)

> Compliance with anti-pollution standards

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

First design elements

Constraints associated with combustion in a turbojet engine and a gas turbine (2/2):

Limiting the risk of occurrence of pressure oscillations and any form combustion instability

Size and shape compatible with the envelope of the whole machine
> compact combustion chamber for a turbojet

Production cost restrained

dismantling possibility /maintenance

Durability high

For stationary TAG: ability to burn different fuels (Oil, synthetic biomass)

For turbojets: low weight

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

First design elements

How to draw a combustion chamber of a turbojet or a TAG? :

As simple as possible: a fuel injector in a straight air duct connecting the compressor output
to the input of the turbine

High pressure drop :

air velocity in compressor output of the order of 170 m / s
loss of charge proportional to the square of the speed> pressure drop in the combustion
chamber of the order of 1/3!
inlet diffuser reducing the speed by a factor of about 5

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

How to draw a combustion chamber of a turbojet or a TAG? :

With inlet diffuser:

flame hangs problem:

air velocity to the fuel injection neighborhood still too high
Use of a deflector plane

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

First design elements

How to draw a combustion chamber of a turbojet or a TAG? :

With inlet diffuser + deflector:

overall air-fuel ratio (of the order of 30 to 40) Outside the flammability range:
ideally, the air / fuel ratio in the flame zone should be of the order of 18Possibly a little more (of the
order of 24) If it is desired to reduce NOx emissions
Staging of the air supply

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

First design elements

How to draw a combustion chamber of a turbojet or a TAG? :

With inlet diffuser deflector + + staging air:

recirculation zone behind the deflector:
of the recirculated exhaust gas allow to ignite continuous fresh air-fuel mixture (primary
zone)
The air not used for combustion, but to lower the flue gas temperature before the turbine
sends (dilution air), Is provided downstream of the primary zone

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types:

Tubular ( "can")

Tubo-annular

Annular

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types: tubular chamber

Each room consists of a cylindrical wall (flame

tube) Co-axially mounted in a cylindrical
housing

The different rooms are arranged around the

periphery of the machine

The air from the compressor is distributed in

the rooms through pipes

The various flame tubes are interconnected

> Equalization Operating Pressure
> Flame propagation when starting

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types: tubular chamber
quick and inexpensive development:
experiments (development) possible on a
single tube
Easy maintenance, can replace a single tube
cumbersome
Heavy

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types: tubo-annular
chamber

Several flame tubes (usually 6 to 10) mounted

in a common annular chamber wherein
arrives compressor air

Interconnection of different flame tubes

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types: tubo-annular
chamber
quick and inexpensive development:
experiments (development) possible on a
single tube
More compact than the tubular chamber
easy maintenance
complex air flow pattern; design arduous
broadcasters
High pressure drop

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types: annular chamber

cylindrical wall mounted concentrically in a cylindrical

housing between which circulate air from the compressor

Several fuel injectors distributed around the periphery

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

First design elements

combustion chamber types: annular chamber
Flow of clean air, including input (diffuser)
Low pressure drop
expensive development:
complex experiments (high air flow)
The annular chamber has emerged for jet engines from
the 60s

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

inlet diffuser
Role of the inlet diffuser

Compressor output, the speed can reach 170 m / s

It is difficult thing to ensure stable combustion with such speed!

Moreover, the pressure drop in the combustion chamber, proportional to the square of the velocity, is
too high (pressure loss can be 30%!)

Need for a diffuser inlet of the combustion chamber, reducing the speed of the compressor outlet air
A diffuser is a diverging portion which is to decelerate the air and convert velocity into static pressure.

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

inlet diffuser
Role of the inlet diffuser
The shape of the diffuser has a significant impact on the loss of generated load. There is competition
between:

frictional losses along the walls ( "friction loss") that increase if the divergence angle is small (length +
the high diffuser)

losses setback of water flows (recirculation, "stall loss")

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

inlet diffuser
2 types of inlet diffuser

Diffuser aerodynamics ( "faired broadcast")

no air setback (recirculation)

small divergence angle (> long diffuser) suitable for TAG >>

domed diffuser ( "dumb broadcast"):

more losses by air detachment,

more compact >> Suitable for jet engines

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

inlet diffuser
Flow in a diffuser
> Comparison of measured and calculated field field:

Hestermann R., S. Kim, Ben Khaled A., S. Witting,

Journal for Gas Turbines and Power, 117 (4), 1995

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Staged combustion
Why staged combustion? :
Given the maximum temperature level allowed turbine inlet (1700 K typically) and the adiabatic flame
temperature (about 2500 K), it is necessary to dilute the combustion air (excess air).
The value of excess air required is outside the flammability limit!

Need to stage combustion: primlaire area, secondary zone, dilution zone

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Staged combustion
3 combustion zones:

Primary area:

hangs from the flame by recirculation of hot flue gases that ignite the mixture of air and fuel
continuously:

Combustion close to stoichiometry (> high temperatures)

Ensures satbilit burning

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Staged combustion
3 combustion zones:

Sub Zone:

Oxidation products of incomplete combustion from the primary zone (CO, UHC, soot

dilution zone:

Dilution of flue gases by introduction of fresh air through outlets in the wall of the combustion
chamber

Must provide for a exhaust gas temperature, diluted, as homogeneous as possible the inlet
of the turbine (excessive thermal stress)

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Staged combustion
Flow distribution:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Staged combustion
Flow distribution:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Staged combustion
temperature levels:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

the combustion efficiency

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

the combustion efficiency

the combustion efficiency:
Example of a combustion chamber of a
turbojet:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

the combustion efficiency

the combustion efficiency:

Comparison of two combustion

chambers:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Fuel injection
Importance of the fuel introducing system:
The quality of the fuel spray impacts:

The combustion efficiency

The combustion stability

The level of emissions of pollutants

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Fuel injection
Induction systems for jet engines:

" Pressure-Swirl Atomizer "

Simplex (a): small room with swirler upstream of the orifice, fuel pressure

Double holes (b): 2 bedrooms with swirler; to better adapt depending on the required load (without
significantly increase the fuel pressure)

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Fuel injection
Induction systems for jet engines:

" Airblast Atomizer "

Fuel introduced at a lower pressure; atomization of spray provided by an air flow at high velocities
Airblast (c): high speed air to the fuel introduction location
Premix-prevaporize (d): fuel evaporation and mixing with air prior to the combustion zone; the air passes
through aswirler
> cOMBUSTION premix

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Fuel injection
Induction systems for jet engines:

" piloted Airblast "

hybrid system with a system type "pressure-swirl atomizer" dual ports combined with a high-speed air injection
At startup and low load: fuel injected only into the hole "pilot"
+ For heavy loads: fuel injected into the 2 holes
> Good performance at all loads

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Fuel injection
Induction systems for TAG:

" Airblast Atomizer "Using a swirler promoting air atomization spray:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Fuel injection
Induction systems for TAG:

" Airblast Atomizer "Swirler 2 types:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Emissions reduction
Source reduction of emissions of CO and UHC :

the most complete combustion possible!

Operating excess air + suffisemment high local temperatures

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Emissions reduction
Source reduction of NOx emissions :

Injection of water or water vapor: reducing maximum temperatures reached by evaporation of water: for
TAG
example:

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Emissions reduction
Source reduction of NOx emissions :

Recirculating exhaust gas (EGR) for TAG

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Emissions reduction
Source reduction of NOx emissions :

DLN ( "Dry-Low NOx"):

" Lean Premix prevaporize "(LPP) Combustion lean premix

> Inconveniant: Risk of combustion instability can seriously endomager machine

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Emissions reduction
Source reduction of NOx emissions :

DLN ( "Dry-Low NOx"):

" Rich-burn / quick-quench / lean-burn

"(RQL):

rich primary zone where the

production of NOx is low (due to lack
of oxygen and low temperature)

Sub Zone: Quick injection of air for

complete combustion. The rapid
dilution keeps a low temperature. >
The difficulty lies in the ability to be
diluted quickly to minimize the time
of residences in hot areas.

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

1. Background and early development

2. First design elements
3. Input Diffuser
4. staged combustion

Emissions reduction
Source reduction of NOx emissions :

DLN ( "Dry-Low NOx"):

" Rich-burn / quick-quench / lean-burn

"(RQL):
Example of combustion chamber:

5. Combustion efficiency
6. Fuel Injection
7. Reducing emissions

Bibliography
For further
AH Lefebvre, Dr Ballal. "Gas Turbine Combustion - Alternative Fuel and Emissions" 3rd
Edition, CRC Press