CHAPTER 2:

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
Stress and strain: What are they and why are
they used instead of load and deformation?
Elastic behavior: When loads are small, how much
deformation occurs? What materials deform least?
Plastic behavior: At what point do dislocations
cause permanent deformation? What materials are
most resistant to permanent deformation?
Toughness and ductility: What are they and how
do we measure them?
1

ELASTIC DEFORMATION
1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

Linearelastic

Elastic means reversible!

Non-Linearelastic

PLASTIC DEFORMATION
(METALS)
1. Initial
2. Small load
3. Unload
bonds
stretch
& planes
shear

planes
still
sheared

elastic + plastic

plastic

Plastic means permanent! linear

linear
elastic

elastic

plastic

ENGINEERING STRESS
Tensile stress, :

Ft

Ft

Ft

original area
before loading

Fs

Area, A

Area, A

Ft

Ao

Shear stress, :

Fs
Fs

Ao

Ft

Stress has units:

N/m2 or lb/in2
4

ENGINEERING STRAIN
Tensile strain:

Lateral strain:
/2

Lo
Shear strain:

wo
L /2

Lo

L
L
wo

/2
L /2

/2

= tan
/2 -
/2

Strain is always
dimensionless.

/2
8

STRESS-STRAIN TESTING
Typical tensile specimen

Typical tensile
test machine
load cell

Adapted from Fig. 6.2,

Callister 6e.

extensometer

specimen

moving cross head

gauge (portion of sample with
=
length reduced cross section)

Other types of
tests:
--compression: brittle
materials (e.g.,
concrete)

Adapted from Fig. 6.3, Callister 6e.

(Fig. 6.3 is taken from H.W.
Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff,
The Structure and Properties of
Materials, Vol. III, Mechanical
Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1965.)
9

LINEAR ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(also known as Young's modulus)

Hooke's Law:

=E
Poisson's ratio, :

metals: ~ 0.33
ceramics: ~0.25
polymers: ~0.40

E
1

Linearelastic

F
simple
tension
test

Units:
E: [GPa] or [psi]
: dimensionless
10

OTHER ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Elastic Shear
modulus, G:

G
1

=G

simple
torsion
test

Elastic Bulk
modulus, K:

V
P= -K
Vo

P
-K

V P
Vo
1

Special relations for isotropic materials:

E
E
G
K
2(1 )
3(1 2)

P
pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
Vol chg.
= V

11

YOUNGS MODULI:
COMPARISON
Metals
Alloys

1200
1000
800
600
400

E(GPa)

200
100
80
60
40

109 Pa

Graphite
Composites
Ceramics Polymers
/fibers
Semicond
Diamond

Si carbide
Tungsten
Al oxide
Molybdenum Si nitride
Steel, Ni
<111>
Tantalum
Si crystal
Platinum
<100>
Cu alloys
Zinc, Ti
Silver, Gold Glass-soda
Aluminum

C arbon fibers only

CFRE(|| fibers)*
Aramid fibers only

AFRE(|| fibers)*
Glass fibers only

Magnesium,
Tin

GFRE(|| fibers)*
Concrete
GFRE*

20
10
8
6
4
2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

CFRE *
GFRE( fibers)*

Graphite

Polyester
PET
PS
PC

CFRE( fibers)*
AFRE( fibers)*

Epoxy only

E ceramics
>E metals
>>Epolymers
Based on data in Table B2,
Callister 6e.
Composite data based on
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
carbon (CFRE),
aramid (AFRE), or
glass (GFRE)
fibers.

PP
HDPE
PTFE
LDPE

Wood(

grain)

12

USEFUL LINEAR ELASTIC RELATIONS

Simple tension:

FL o Fw o
L
EA o
EA o
F

2ML o
4
r G
o

M=moment
=angle of twist

/2

Ao

wo
L /2

Simple torsion:

Lo
/2
L /2

Lo
2ro

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all

contribute to deflection.
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.
13 10

PLASTIC (PERMANENT) DEFORMATION

(at lower temperatures, T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
at larger stress

tensile stress,

Elastic
initially

permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

engineering strain,
plastic strain
14 11

YIELD STRENGTH, y
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has
occurred.
when p = 0.002
tensile stress,

engineering strain,

p = 0.002
15 12

YIELD STRENGTH: COMPARISON

Metals/
Alloys

200

Al (6061)ag
Steel (1020)hr
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500)hr

100
70
60
50
40

Al (6061)a

30
20

10

Tin (pure)

dry

PC
Nylon 6,6
PET
PVC humid
PP
HDPE

LDPE

Hard to measure,

300

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700
600
500
400

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)a
W (pure)
Cu (71500)cw
Mo (pure)
Steel (4140)a
Steel (1020)cd

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

1000

Composites/
fibers

Steel (4140)qt

Hard to measure,

Yield strength, y (MPa)

2000

Graphite/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Semicond

y(ceramics)
>>
y(metals)
>>y(polymers)
Room T values
Based on data in Table B4,
Callister 6e.
a
= annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered

16 13

TENSILE STRENGTH, TS
Maximum possible engineering stress in tension.

e n g in e e r in g
s tre s s

TS

Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

Callister 6e.

Typical response of a metal

strain
Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.
Ceramics: occurs when crack propagation starts.
Polymers: occurs when polymer backbones are
aligned and about to break.

17 14

TENSILE STRENGTH:
COMPARISON
Metals/
Alloys

Tensile strength, TS(MPa)

5000
3000
2000
1000

300
200
100
40
30
20

Graphite/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Semicond

Composites/
fibers
C fibers
Aramid fib
E-glass fib

Steel (4140)qt
Diamond
W (pure)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa
Steel (4140)
Si nitride
Cu (71500)cw
Cu (71500)hr Al oxide
Steel (1020)
Al (6061)ag
Ti (pure)a
Ta (pure)
Al (6061)a
Si crystal
<100>

Glass-soda
Concrete
Graphite

AFRE(|| fiber)
GFRE(|| fiber)
CFRE(|| fiber)

Nylon 6,6
PC PET
PVC
PP
HDPE

wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,

GFRE( fiber)
CFRE( fiber)
AFRE( fiber)

LDPE

10

wood(

TS (ceram)
~TS (met)
~TS (comp)
>>TS (poly)
Room T values

fiber)

Callister 6e.
a
= annealed
hr = hot rolled
ag = aged
cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
18 15

DUCTILITY, %EL

L f Lo
x100
Plastic tensile strain at failure:%EL
Lo
Engineering
tensile
stress,
Adapted from Fig. 6.13,
Callister 6e.

smaller %EL
(brittle if %EL<5%)
larger %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)

Lo

Ao

Af

Lf

Engineering tensile strain,

Ao A f
Another ductility measure:%AR
x100
Ao
Note: %AR and %EL are often comparable.
--Reason: crystal slip does not change material
volume.
--%AR > %EL possible if internal voids form in neck.

19 16

TOUGHNESS
Energy to break a unit volume of material
Approximate by the area under the stress-strain
curve.
Engineering
tensile
stress,

smaller toughness (ceramics)

larger toughness
(metals, PMCs)
smaller toughnessunreinforced
polymers

Engineering tensile strain,

17

HARDNESS
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
Large hardness means:
--resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
--better wear properties.
e.g.,
10mm sphere

apply known force

(1 to 1000g)

D
most
plastics

measure size
of indent after
removing load
Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.

brasses easy to machine

Al alloys steels
file hard

cutting
tools

nitrided
steels
diamond

increasing hardness
Adapted from Fig. 6.18, Callister 6e. (Fig. 6.18 is adapted from G.F. Kinney, Engineering
Properties
and Applications of Plastics, p. 202, John Wiley and Sons, 1957.)

21 18

DESIGN OR SAFETY FACTORS

Design uncertainties mean we do not push the
limit.
Often N is
Factor of safety, N y
between
working
1.2 and 4
N
Ex: Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does
not occur in the 1045 carbon steel rod below. Use a
factor of safety of 5.
d

working
220,000N

d2 /4

y
N

1045 plain
carbon steel:
y=310MPa
TS=565MPa

Lo

F = 220,000N
23 19

SUMMARY
Stress and strain: These are size-independent
measures of load and displacement, respectively.
Elastic behavior: This reversible behavior often
shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a
large elastic modulus (E or G).
Plastic behavior: This permanent deformation
behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches y.
Toughness: The energy needed to break a unit
volume of material.
Ductility: The plastic strain at failure.

20