Earthmoving Equipment

LECTURE 2
Earthmoving equipment
BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy
Activities
involved in earthmoving
include excavating, loading, hauling,
placing (dumping and spreading),
compaction, grading and finishing.
Efficient management of these
processes requires accurate
estimating of work quantities and job
conditions, proper selection of
equipment and competent
management.
Production of earthmoving
equipment:
Basic relationship
Production = Volume per cycle x
cycles per hour
Cycles
per hour must include any

appropriate efficiency factors so that
it represents the number of cycles
actually achieved or expected to be
achieved per hour.
There are two methods of estimating

this job efficiency:
Use the number of effective working
minutes per hour to calculate the number
of cycles achieved per hour i.e. using an
efficiency factor equal to the number of
working minutes per hour divided by 60.
Multiply the number of theoretical cycles
per 60minute hour by a numerical
efficiency factor which is a combination of
job conditions and management
conditions as per the table below:
Cost
per unit of production
Equipment cost per hour

Equipment production per hour
Soil characteristics:
Trafficability the ability of a soil to

support the weight of vehicles under
repeated traffic. It controls the amount
and type of traffic that can be used on
unimproved access roads and the
operation of equipment on the site. It is a
function of soli type and moisture
conditions. When poor trafficability
conditions exists drainage, stabilisation
and use of low-ground pressure equipment
may be required.
Loadability
measure of the difficulty

in excavating and loading a soil.
Loose granular soils are highly
loadable whereas compacted
cohesive soils and rock have low
Loadability.
Unit soil weight expressed in
kilograms per cubic meter and
depends on the type of soil, moisture
content and degree of compaction.
It determines the capacity of the
haul unit.
Bank
volume material in its

natural state before disturbance i.e.
in-place or in-situ expressed as
bank cubic meter (Bm3)
Loose volume material that has
been excavated or loaded identified
as loose cubic meter (Lm3)
Compacted volume material after
compaction identified as compacted
cubic meter (Cm3)
Swell a soil increases in volume when it is

excavated because the soil grains are
loosened during excavation and air fill the
void spaces i.e. a unit volume of bank will
occupy more than one unit after excavation.
Swell is calculated as;
Swell (%) = weight /bank volume - 1 x 100
Weight /loose volume
Shrinkage when soil is compacted some of
the air is forced out of the soils void spaces
hence the soil occupies less volume then it
did under bank and loose conditions i.e. the
reverse of swell. The formula is also reverse.
10
Load factor simplified conversion of loose

volume into bank volume
Load factor = weight/loose unit volume
weight /bank unit volume
Load factor =
1
1 + swell
Shrinkage factor used to convert bank volume

to compacted volume
Shrinkage factor = weight
/ bank volume
weight/compacted unit vol.
Shrinkage factor = 1 shrinkage
Discuss example
11
Excavating and lifting

equipment
To
estimate the production of an

excavator it is necessary to first
know the volume of material
actually contained in one bucket
load. The methods by which
excavator bucket and dozer
blade capacity are rated are as
follows:
12
Plate line capacity is the bucket volume

contained within the bucket when following
the outline of the bucket sides
Struck capacity is the bucket capacity when
the load is struck off flush with the bucket
sides
Water line capacity assumes a level of
material flush to the lowest edge of the bucket
i.e. corresponds to the water level that would
result if the bucket were filled with water
Heaped volume is the maximum volume that
can be placed in the bucket without spillage
based on a specific angle of repose for the
material in the bucket
13
Since the bucket rating for the cable

shovel, dragline and backhoe are based
on struck volume it is often assumed
that the heaping of the buckets will
compensate for the swell of the soil i.e.
5m3 bucket is actually assumed to hold
5m3 bank volume.
A better estimate of the volume of
material in one bucket load will be
obtained if the nominal bucket volume
is multiplied by a bucket fill factor or
bucket efficiency factor as follows;
14
The
most accurate
estimate is obtained by
multiplying the heaped
bucket volume (loose
measure) by the bucket fill
factor.
Discuss
example
15
16
Crane-shovel family
Consists
of three major assemblies;

a carrier or mounting, a revolving
superstructure containing the
power and control units, and a
front-end attachment. Carriers
available include crawler, truck and
wheel mounting as shown below.
17
18
Crawler
mounting provides
excellent on-site mobility and its
low ground pressure enables it to
operate in areas of low
trafficability hence widely used
for drainage, trenching and rock
excavation. They have low travel
speed. Suitable where work is
concentrated in large jobs.
19
Truck and wheel mounting provide

greater mobility on site but less stable
than crawler mountings and require
better surface to operate and are
capable of highway travel. Usually truck
mounted equipment have separate
engine from the truck. It is also
suitable where there are numerous
small jobs in different locations.
The name of the particular member is
determined by the front-end
attachment used.
20
Shovels:
Used primarily to excavate earth and load

it into trucks or wagons or conveyor belts.
Shovels have limited ability to dig below
track level but are very efficient when
digging from track level up to about the
height of the shipper shaft. They may also
be used to dress slopes, loading hoppers
and digging shallow trenches. They are
capable of excavating all classes of earth
except solid rock without prior loosening
with the following characteristics;
21
22
23
Size
this is determined by the size

of the dipper expressed in cubic
metres and represents the struck
volume. Appropriate size is
determined by the cost per cubic
metre of material excavated and job
conditions. Other considerations
include the dimensions of the boom,
the dipper stick, maximum cutting
height, digging radius and dumping
height these are all given in the
manufacturers specifications.
24
Operation with the shovel in the

correct position near the face of the
earth to be excavated, the dipper is
lowered to the floor of the pit with the
teeth pointing into the digging face
vertical surface to dig against. A
crowding force is applied through the
shipper shaft and at the same time
tension if applied to the hoisting line to
pull the dipper up the face of the pit.
Dumping is accomplished by releasing
the dipper door latch allowing the
dipper door to swing open.
25
If the depth of the face is just right,

considering the type of soil and size of the
dipper, the dipper will fill as it reaches the top
of the face. If the depth of the face referred
to as the depth of cut is too shallow, it will
not be possible to fill the dipper without
excessive crowding and hoisting tension and
possibly not at all. The operator will then
have choice of making more than one pass to
fill the dipper which increases the time per
cycle or to carry a partly filled dipper to the
haul unit each cycle. This subjects the
equipment to excessive strains and reduces
the output of the unit.
26
If the depth of the face is greater than required

to fill the dipper when operating under
favourable crowd and hoist, it will be necessary
to reduce the depth of penetration of the dipper
into the face to be excavated so as to fill the
dipper in one stroke this will increase the time
of the cycle or to start excavation above the
floor of the pit and then remove the lower
portion later or he may run the dipper up the
full height of the face and let the excess earth
spill to the bottom of the pit to be picked up
later. If the shovel is hydraulically controlled
the operating force is produced by pistons.
Hydraulic shovel maybe front dump or bottom
dump.
27
Optimum depth of cut the depth that

produces the greatest output and at which
the dipper comes up with a full load
without undue crowding. This varies with
class of soil and size of dipper.
Angle of swing the horizontal angle
expressed in degrees, between the
position of the dipper when it is
excavating and the position when it is
discharging the load. If the angle of swing
is increased the time cycle will be
increased while if the angle is decreased
the time of the cycle will be decreased.
28
The effect of the depth of cut and angle

of swing on the output of a shovel is
estimated used the figures in the table
of swing-depth factors below;
Output this is affected by the
following; class of material, depth of
cut, angle of swing, job conditions,
management conditions, size of hauling
unit, skill of operator and physical
condition of the shovel. The total time
in the cycle includes digging, swinging
to dumping position, dumping and
returning to the digging position.
29
Expected production = ideal output x swing-depth

factor x efficiency
Discuss example
It is recommended that the result be rounded off to the
nearest cubic meters per hour.
For hydraulic shovel production is estimated as follows:

Production (Lm3/h) = C X S X V X B X E
C = cycles per hour
S = swing factor
V = heaped bucket volume
B = bucket fill factor
E = job efficiency
Discuss example
30
Also
Backhoe
know as hoe or back shovel or pull

shovel. It is an excavator designed
primarily for excavation below grade
thus it is widely utilised for trenching
work including excavating, laying pipe
bedding, placing pipe, backfilling
trench, excavating basements, cleaning
road side ditches and grading
embankments where precise control of
depth is desired.
31
For
pipe trench excavation a

dipper width should be chosen
which matches the required
trench width as closely as
possible. It digs by pulling the
dipper backwards towards the
machine and shares
characteristics of digging action
with the shovel.
32
33
Because of direct pull on the dipper hoes may

exert greater tooth pressure than power shovels.
The most effective digging action occurs when the
dipper stick is at right angles to the boom. The
greatest output will be obtained is digging is done
near the machine because of reduced cycle time
and because material rolls back into the dipper
better when the dipper is pulled upwards near the
machine. Backhoes may be cable operated but
more commonly hydraulic which has superior
speed and ease of control. The production of a
hydraulic backhoe is calculates as that of the
shovel as above.
Discuss example
34
Bulldozer or Dozer
Basically a tractor equipped with a

front-mounted earthmoving blade. It
moves earth by lowering the blade and
cutting until a full blade load of material
is obtained. It then pushes the material
across the ground surface to the
required location. The material is
unloaded by pushing it over a cliff or by
raising the blade to form a spoil pile.
35
36
Dozers maybe crawler or wheel mounted

depending on the trafficability of the site.
Crawler mounted can operate on steeper side
slopes and climb greater grades than wheel
mounted. Bulldozers are used for the following;
Clearing land off timber and stumps
Opening up pilot roads through mountains and
rocky terrain
Moving earth for haul distances up to 100m
Spreading earth fill
Backfilling trenches
Clearing construction sites off debris
Maintaining haul roads
Clearing the floors of borrow and quarry pits
37
38
Bulldozers may be equipped

with attachments other than
dozer blades including;
Rakes used for gathering up
brush and small fallen trees
Plows, rippers and scarifiers
used to break up hard
surfaces.
39
40
41
Many
Dozer blades:
types are available but the most

common are shown below. Tilting the
blade is useful for ditching and breaking
up crusty soil. Pitching the blade
forward reduces blade penetration and
causes the loosened material to roll in
front of the blade whereas pitching
backwards increases penetration.
Angling the blade is helpful when side
hill cutting, ditching and moving
material laterally.
42
The performance of the bulldozer is based

on the ratio of the blades horsepower per
foot of cutting edge which is a measure of
the blades ability to penetrate hard soils
and horsepower per loose cubic metres
which indicates the blades ability to push
material once the blade is loaded. The
wings of the universal blade enable it to
push a large volume of material over long
distances. However it has low
horsepower per foot of cutting edge
limiting its ability to penetrate hard soils
or move heavy materials.
43
44
Dozer production:
Basic earthmoving equation applies.
It however requires an estimate of
the average blade load and the dozer
cycle time.
Dozer blade load maybe estimated
from manufacturers capacity
ratings, previous experience under
similar conditions and actual
measurement of several typical
loads.
45
Total dozer cycle time is the sum of its

fixed cycle time and variable cycle time
Fixed cycle time represents the time
required to manoeuvre, change gears,
start loading and dump as estimated in
the table below;
Variable cycle time is the time required
to doze and return. Note that since the
haul distance is usually short the dozer
returns in reverse gear. Typical
operating speeds are in the table below;
Discuss example
46
Trenching machines
Used for digging utility trenches for water, gas and
oil pipelines, telephone cables, drainage ditches and
sewers. They provide relatively fast digging and
control depth and width of the trench. They are
available in various sizes for digging trenches of
varying widths and depths. The excavating part of
the machine consists of a power-driven wheel on
which are mounted a number of removable buckets
equipped with cutter teeth. The machine is
operated by lowering the rotating wheel to the
desired depth while the unit moves forward slowly.
The earth is picked up by the buckets and deposited
on either side of the trench.
47
48
Grading and finishing
Grading is the process of bringing

earthwork to the desired shape and
elevation while finishing (finish grading)
involves smoothing slopes, shaping
ditches and bringing earthwork to the
elevation required by the plans and
specification. In road works balancing is
the process of cutting down high spots
and filling low spots of each road layer.
Trimming is the process of bringing each
roadway layer to its final grade.
49
Motor Grader;
One
of the most versatile

earthmoving equipment that can be
used for light stripping, grading,
finishing, trimming, bank sloping,
ditching, backfilling and scarifying.
It can mix and spread soils and
asphaltic mixtures and it is
frequently used to maintain
highways and haul roads.
50
51
The blade of a motor grader is referred to as a

moldboard and is equipped with replaceable
cutting edges and end pieces. The wide ranges of
possible blade positions are shown below. Blade
cutting edges are available in;
Flat edges produces the least edge wear
Curved edges recommended for cutting hard
materials and fine grading
Serrated edges used for breaking up packed
gravel.
Motor graders have articulated frames that
increase grader manoeuvrability as indicated in
the three operation positions below. Graders are
available with automatic blade control systems
that permit precise grade control via use of laser
beams.
52
53
54
Grader production
Usually calculated on a linear basis (km/h) or
area (m2/h). The time required
Time =
number of passes x section length (km) x
1_____
Average speed for section (km/h)
efficiency
Discuss example
55
Compaction
This is the process of increasing the

density of a soil by mechanically forcing
the soil particles closer together thereby
expelling air from the void spaces in the
soil. This increases the soils bearing
capacity, reduces compressibility,
improves volume change characteristics
and reduces permeability. The four
basic compaction forces are static
weight, manipulation (kneading), impact
and vibration.
56
57
Compaction equipment:
Tamping foot rollers utilise a compaction

drum equipped with a number of
protruding feet e.g. sheepsfoot roller.
During initial compaction roller feet
penetrate the loose material and sink the
lower portion of the lifts. As compaction
proceeds the roller rises to the surface or
walks out of the soil. All tamping foot
rollers utilise static weight and
manipulation to achieve compaction thus
they are most effective on cohesive soils
58
Grid or mesh rollers utilise a

compactor drum made up of a heavy
steel mesh. They achieve compaction
by static weight and impact plus limited
manipulation. They are most effective
in compacting gravel and sand.
Vibratory compactors they include
plate compactors, smooth drum rollers
and tamping foot rollers. They are
effective in compacting non-cohesive
soils but if adjusted to low frequency
and high amplitude they may compact
cohesive soils.
59
60
Steel
wheel or smooth drum rollers

compact granular bases and asphalt
pavements. The compactive force is
primarily static weight.
Rubber tired or pneumatic rollers
they include multitired and heavy
pneumatic rollers (upto 200 tons)
and they are effective on all types of
soils
Rammers or tampers small impact
type compactors primarily used in
confined areas
61
62
Production:
Production (Cm3/h) = 10 x W x S x L x E
P
= number of passes required

W = width compacted per pass (m)
S = compactor speed (km/h)
L = compacted lift thickness (cm)
E = job efficiency
63

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LECTURE 2

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

per hour must include any

There are two methods of estimating

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

per unit of production

Equipment cost per hour

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Trafficability the ability of a soil to

measure of the difficulty

volume material in its

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Swell a soil increases in volume when it is

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Load factor simplified conversion of loose

Shrinkage factor used to convert bank volume

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Excavating and lifting

estimate the production of an

Plate line capacity is the bucket volume

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Since the bucket rating for the cable

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

of three major assemblies;

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Truck and wheel mounting provide

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Used primarily to excavate earth and load

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

this is determined by the size

Operation with the shovel in the

If the depth of the face is just right,

If the depth of the face is greater than required

Optimum depth of cut the depth that

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

The effect of the depth of cut and angle

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Expected production = ideal output x swing-depth

For hydraulic shovel production is estimated as follows:

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

know as hoe or back shovel or pull

pipe trench excavation a

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Because of direct pull on the dipper hoes may

Basically a tractor equipped with a

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Dozers maybe crawler or wheel mounted

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Bulldozers may be equipped

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

types are available but the most

The performance of the bulldozer is based

BCM 207 - Njeri/Kennedy

Total dozer cycle time is the sum of its