Chapter 9

Sea Surface Temperature

Ocean and atmosphere

Stability

Net surface radiation flux

Surface heat fluxes

Sensible and latent heat

Coupling
Salinity

Processes
Energy
transfer

Heat transfer by Precip.

Storage and
transport of energy
below the ocean

Just one example

Do we need coupling and fluxes??
Processes in the interface permit
interaction each time step

Removing
heat

Ocean Surface Energy Budget

Net surface
radiation flux
rad
Q0

Latent
heat

Sensible
heat

FQLH
0

FQSH
0

Heat transfer
by precipitation

Ocean

FQPR
0

Transport of
energy via fluid
motions

FQnet0
Storage

FQadv
0
Transport of
energy via fluid
motions

adv
Q0

ent
Q0

Via
entrainment

Adding
heat

Surface turbulent heat fluxes

Sensible heat flux

Latent heat flux

FQSH
0 c pd w ' ' 0

FQLH
0 Llv w ' qv ' 0
Covariances

High-frequency
measurements
Rarely available
Estimate in terms of
other parameters

Bulk aerodynamic formulae

Near-surface turbulence arises
from the mean wind shear over
the surface

Turbulent fluxes of heat and moisture

are proportional to their gradients just
above the ocean surface

Surface turbulent heat fluxes

Bulk aerodynamic formulae

SH
Q0

c pC DH ua u0 a 0

FQLH
0 Llv C DE ua u0 qva qv 0
Aerodynamic transfer
coefficients
Under Ordinary conditions

Ri B 0

Stable

Ri B 0

Neutral

Ri B 0

unstable

C DH C DE

Just
above
the
surface

k2
za
ln
z0

f Ri B

Richardson
number

Aerodynamic transfer coefficients

Ri B 0

Stable

Ri B 0

Neutral

Ri B 0

unstable

Small for statically stable conditions

Large for unstable conditions

The magnitude of the

heat transfer is inversely
proportional to the
degree of stability

Heat flux for precipitation

Temperature of
the rain drop

heat transfer occurs if

the precipitation is at
different temperature
than the surface !!!

If thermal equilibrium
Train= wet bulb T of the atmosphere

FQoPR l c pl P r TWa To

TWa To

Usually

Snow??

c ps TIa T0
Lil

Greatest for large rainfall rates and

large differences in temperature

Heat flux from rain

cools the ocean

Latent heat
Melt Snow

0.0063 TIa T0

Long term
contribution to
surface energy
budget small

Commonly
Neglected

FQoPR s c ps P s Tla To s Lil P s

The latent heat is an order of magnitude
larger than sensible heat term

Variation of surface energy

budget components

Bowen Ratio

B0

FQoSH
FQoLH

Ocean Surface
Salinity Budget
Precipitation
Evaporation
Formation of sea ice
Melting of sea ice
River runoff
Storage transport
below the ocean
surface

E 0

Artic Ocean

97

53

Atlantic Ocean

761

1133

Indian Ocean

1043

1294

Pacific Ocean

1292

1202

All Oceans

1066

1176

mm/yr

Important
regional
differences

P-E
average
1959-1997

Global river runoff

Fresh-water input to the southern oceans comes from melting

Ocean Surface Buoyancy flux

FB 0

net

net
g
FQ 0 Fs 0
c

p
0

Evaporation

Negative value meets the

instability criterion
Sinking motion in the ocean

Increases the buoyancy flux

Ratio of the
cooling term to
the salinity term
of evaporation

Llv
c p s0

Precipitation

Tropics
High latitudes

T=30 C; s=35 psu

8.0

T=0 C; s=35 psu

0.6

decreases and increases the buoyancy flux

Freshening effects of rain dominate the cooling effects of rain at all

Snow

latitudes

Freshening dominates the effect on the buoyancy flux

Ice/ocean
Heat flux terms that influence the surface
Penetration of solar radiation beneath the ice

Latent heat associated with freezing or melting ice

Sea Ice grows

Typical polar conditions

Salinity term dominates in
determining ocean surface
buoyancy flux

Increase salinity
releases latent heat

large body of air that has similar temperature

and moisture properties throughout.

Air mass
Source regions

The best for air masses are large flat areas where air
can be stagnant long enough to take on the
characteristics of the surface below

uniform surface composition - flat light surface winds

The longer the air mass stays over its source region, the
more likely it will acquire the properties of the surface below.
Once an air mass moves out of its source region, it is
modified as it encounters surface conditions different than
those found in the source region. For example, as a polar air
mass moves southward, it encounters warmer land masses

Classification:
Tropical (T)
By thermal properties

Polar (P)

Continental (C)
By moisture

Artic or Antarctic (A)

Also

Cold (K)

Warm (W)

Maritime (m)

Continental
Arctic (cA):

Extremely cold temperatures and very little moisture.

originate north of the Arctic Circle, where days of 24 hour darkness
allow the air to cool
very rarely form during the summer

Continental
polar (cP):

not as cold as Arctic air masses

form during the summer, but
usually influence only the
northern USA
Cool and moist

Maritime
polar (mP):

Maritime
tropical (mT):

Continental
Tropical (cT):

form over the northern Atlantic and the

northern Pacific oceans
can form any time of the year and are usually
not as cold as continental polar air masses.
Warm temperatures and moisture
originate over the warm waters of the
southern Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf of
Mexico
can form year round
Hot and very dry
usually form over the Desert Southwest and
northern Mexico during summer

Water mass
Two basic circulation
systems in the oceans

the wind-driven surface circulation

the deepwater density-driven circulation

Only about 10% of the ocean volume is involved in wind-driven surface currents.
The other 90% circulates due to density differences in water masses
Water masses are identified by their temperature, salinity, and
other properties such as nutrients or oxygen content.
Different inputs of freshwater
all water masses gain their particular
characteristics because of interaction with
the surface during their development.

Patterns of precipitation
Evaporation
temperature regimes

Once water masses sink, their temperature

and salinity are modified primarily by mixing
with other water masses (diffusive and
turbulent heat exchange).

process is very slow

Water mass

surface water 0-200 meters

their names generally

incorporate information about
the depth levels they occur at

intermediate water 200-1500 meters

deep water 1500-4000 meters
bottom water deeper than deep water

North Atlantic Deep Water forms in

the region around Iceland.
North Atlantic Intermediate Water has
come near the surface and has been
cooled by the contact with the air.
Mediterranean Outflow Water is a
deep water mass that results from
high salinity, not cooling.
Antarctic Bottom Water is the most
distinct of all deep water masses. It
is cold (-0.5C or 31.1F) and salty
(34.65 parts per thousand).