CHAPTER 3

CHAPTER 3
METHODS OF
RESEARCH
Prepared and reported by:
Espinosa, Kenneth Pearl T.
Laig, Maricris DM
Mamaid, Ana Rose SJ.
Manalo, Delfin Jr. M.
Marquez, Lorna A.
Miles, Michelle B.
TOPICS
METHODS OF RESEARCH
RESPONDENTS OF THE STUDY
SOURCES OF DATA AND INSTRUMENTS
USED
PROCEDURES
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
QUALITATIVE METHOD
Usually
researches with data
from non-probability samples
Researches
that do not seek
generalization of data
Researches not concerned with
inferring the characteristics of
the population
QUANTITATIVE METHOD
Researches are not datafree,
using all types of sampling
techniques
Researches
that
aim
for
generalization
Usually used probability samples
Infer the characteristics of the
population
QUANTITATIVE METHOD
Concerned with:
Descriptive Methods
Experimental Methods
A. QUALITATIVE METHOD
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Used for special kinds of researches or

studies such as the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Ethnographic
Phenomenological
Appreciative inquiry (AI)
Historical Researches
1. ETHNOGRAPHIC
Concerned with the environment or setting where the

behavior occurred
The general frame of reference that directly influences

current decision-making about specific issues. (Carp,
1989)
Having the purpose of:

a. discovering & describing the culture of people or
an organization
b. understanding the social phenomenon from the
perspective of the participants
c. analyzing the context
narrating their stories
of
participants
and
2. PHENOMENOLOGICAL
Founded in 1940 by Marvin Farber

Deals with human experience, using
metaphor, narrative form and inductive
method.
Elrich (1996) says that phenomenological
research seeks to explain rather than just
merely describe the incidents in the story.
Categorized as a research method and as
a process, is more viewed as an approach
to explain human and social experience.
PHENOMENOLOGICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Philosophical
Foundation
the
approach is based on the following
concepts of:
Edmund
Hussels on certain absolute

knowledge
Investigating general essence
Apprehending essential relationship among
essences
Watching the modes of approving
Watching the constituents of a phenomenon
Interpreting the meaning of phenomenon
In short, the phenomenological

approaches have the following
characteristics:
a. hypothesis-free
b. free from preconceptions
c. developmental change of a
system
d. a strategy of organizational
change
e. describing highest quality of a
ADVANTAGES
It
is
not
intensive
DISADVANTAGES
labor No generalization can

be made
Hypothesis-free
Not
very
much
concerned
with
numeric concepts
No inferences due to
its nature
3. APPRECIATIVE
INQUIRY
A method that would change negative

perspectives into something good. It
circumvents the negative aspect into a
positive one.
Comes from two words: Appreciative
and Inquiry.
Inquiry
is an act of exploration and

discovery, to ask questions.
Appreciate means valuing or the act of
recognizing the best in the other people or
the world around.
APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Among its features are:

a. it considers the strength and
potentials
of
persons
and
opportunities, not weaknesses or
threats
b. it turns negative into positive
c. although it is qualitative in
nature, it can be used as a
composite
method
with
quantitative ones
APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
It
is
not
labor No generalization can
intensive
be made
Hypothesis-free
It does not involve
quantitative data
It can be used with
other quantitative
methods
No inferences due to
its nature
4. HISTORICAL
Systematic collection and evaluation of

data
to
describe,
explain
and
understand actions or event that
occurred sometime in the past.
Deals with past events and interprets

in the light of the present.
HISTORICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
PURPOSES OF HISTORICAL
METHOD
To make people aware of what has

happened in the past in order to:
Learn from past failures and successes

Apply to present-day problems
Make predictions
Test hypotheses concerning relationships or
trends
Understand present practices and policies
Steps in Historical Method
Formulating the problem

Gathering of Material Resources
Classifying and analyzing Historical
Resources
Report writing
Categories of Sources
Documents
Numerical records
Oral Statements
Relics
Primary vs. Secondary sources

External and Internal Criticism
ADVANTAGES
The research
complete.
paper
DISADVANTAGES
is
not It develops less creativity since

only data that exist are
important
Documents are strong evidence Researcher cannot alter the

than testimonial ones.
form of evidences, since the
form itself will denote validity
Data are not complete, which
makes
historical
studies
hanging and may give rise to
other problems.
There is no room to establish
inferences,
generalities,
or
projections,
so
historical
research have little utilitarian
value.
B. QUANTITATIVE
METHOD
QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Generally empirical which means a research

based on testing or experience
Derived from direct data which are necessary
numeric
Explaining phenomena by collecting numerical
data using mathematically based method and
statistical method.
Kinds of Quantitative Research:
1. Descriptive Method
2. Experimental Method
1. DESCRIPTIVE METHOD
DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
1. CASE STUDIES
A study involving descriptive information

about one person.
A detailed and in-depth research involving
few respondents (from one to a small size of
less than 10 respondents)
can be beneficial because they can provide
detailed information and insight into the
feelings, thoughts, and behaviors of a
person who may be unique in some ways.
CASE STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Uses of Case Studies
Provides further the investigation with hypothesis, that

might be difficult to study in other contexts, in being a
micro study with limited small sample.
Gives out unique situations, to give out new information.
Provides new insights, helps modify pre-existing beliefs, &

points out gaps in knowledge, but on a micro size scale.
Demonstrates the effectiveness of a certain theoretical

model. It is a detailed information and in-depth research
involving few respondents.
CASE STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Limitations of Case Studies
Cant generalize the results to the

wider population.
Researchers' own subjective feeling
may
influence
the
case
study
(researcher bias).
Difficult to replicate.
Time consuming.
2. SURVEYS
an activity in which many people are asked a

question or a series of questions in order to
gather information about what most people do
or think about something.
Survey studies are categorized into two,
namely:
DESCRIPTIVE SURVEY uses questionnaire or
other instruments prepared by the researcher to

generate data.
DESCRITIVE NORMATIVE SURVEY deals with
sources of data that are standardized, like mental
ability test, performance questionnaires , and
others.
SURVEYS - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Used to gather relatively limited data from

relatively large numbers of cases.
It may include:
correlational (the relationship between things that
happen or change together)

assessment (an idea or opinion about something) or;
Causal comparative studies (relatively or showing the
cause of something).
Example :
1. Interaction of age and gender on Science Subject
Performance of Grade IV Students.
2. Stress & coping strategies of Nurses in ICU
hospitals. Etc.
SURVEYS - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
It is a writing research report There is a possibility that

not a labor intensive in deriving assertions made by respondents
data.
to questionnaires may not be
true or correct.
The
methodology
is
not There is a possibility that the
complex, reduces cost, effort instruments prepared by the
and time.
researcher may be inadequate
or insufficient which means
there is the problem of validity
of instruments, especially if it is
researcher made.
It
can
avail
of
current
questionnaires
and
standardized instruments for
the study.
3. DEVELOPMENTAL
STUDIES
A reliable information about a group of

people over a long period of time.
Two methods of Developmental

Studies:
Longitudinal Method
Cross-Sectional Method
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Two Methods of Developmental Studies

1. THE LONGITUDINAL METHOD
Study the same sample of participants over an
extended period of time.
Ex. a) Study on autistic children from 1 or 5 years
b) Study on fraternal twins from birth to 7 years old
2. THE CROSS-SECTIONAL METHOD
This concerns studying participants of various age
levels and of other characteristics at the same point in
time.
Ex. a) A study on the development of babies from birth to
five yrs afflicted with a certain type of diseases, and
using participants from all age levels at the same time.
DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
It is not labor intensive.
DISADVANTAGES
It is not possible to develop
inferences from the findings,
since the sample is very small.
A small-sized sample can be It is also not possible to give

used.
generalizations of the findings
for the same reason that size is
small but can be made only for
the particular sample.
It gives detailed and accurate

information of the objects or
persons to be observed.
4. ASSESSMENT OR EVALUATION
STUDIES
Assessment or evaluation studies are those which refer to

be the efficiency and effectiveness of policies, instruments,
or the variables that may be considered.
The survey deals with impression of perceptions of
respondents, it is often times subjective (based on feelings
or opinions rather than facts)
Assessment the act of making judgement about
something.
- an idea or opinion about something.
Evaluation to judge the value or condition (someone or
something) in a careful & thoughtful way
EX. The use of scanners in determining sex of babies etc.
ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
The findings have direct use There might be difficulty in

since these studies fall into getting data. They do not like to
category of applied research.
give information.
The findings serve as basis for Recommendations may not be
decision-making
and
the accepted.
formulation of policies in the
management concerned.
Data do exist.
The study is not labor intensive.
The equipment or instrument

may not be available.
5. COMPARATIVE
STUDIES
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
The method is not labor intensive. The findings are limited.
The result is easily seen.
The variables are selected, not only The selection of the variables is
as basis of previous studies, but usually limited.
also on what subject have.
The
variables
are
selected When respondents are group into
according to which can give categories,
it
is
necessarily
significant implications to the study. comparative studies, but the sizes
of the categories may not be
conformable for comparison.
CORRELATIONAL
STUDIES
COMMON TERMS:
RELATIONSHIP- The way in which two
or more people or things are
connected.
ASSOCIATION- the process of forming
mental connection or bonds between
sensations, ideas, or memories.
CORRESPONDENCE- direct relationship
to or with something or between two
things.
CORRELATIONAL STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Type of research method that shows

relationship from one variable to
another variable. This can be direct from
left to right or vice versa or two way.
Examples:
The relationship between Management
Styles and Leadership Dimensions of
Managers of a certain business firm.
Total Quality Management and Teacher
Empowerment of a certain National High
School.
FOLLOW UP STUDIES
Follow up the development
Referred to the tracer studies
Examples:
A Follow-up studies of the Graduate of a
Maritime School From 1990 to 2005
A Follow- up Studies of the Nursing
Graduates of a Certain University from 1990
to 2005
A Tracer Study of the Graduates of the Drug
Rehabilitation Center from 1992 to 2005.
FOLLOW UP STUDIES OR TRACER STUDIES- QUANTITATIVE

RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
The finding will benefit the institution.
They reveal the status or the condition of the alumni of the
school for a certain period of time, which a school should
have.
TRENDS AND PROJECTION STUDIES

A type of research method deals with
forward looking.
It can also predict behavior of some
economic variables.
Examples:
Enrolment Trends in the College of
Education from 1995 to 2005, and Ten Years
Hence.
World Nursing Demands Within Five Years
Hence
TREND STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Easy to generate data since most The probability for the presence of
are documentaries
adverse factors is great.
Has a basic assumption: factors

remain constant for projection
There are complexities in feasibility

studies.
Important in decision-making and

policy formulation
Imperative for planning
In some cases, data maybe difficult

to obtain.
EX-POST FACTO
RESEARCH
A research method that deals with the

past
Ex Post Facto means after the fact
Example:
The effects of HAVING and NOT HAVING
Textbooks on College Algebra
EX-POST FACTO - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
It gives information on difference in Data may not be available

the past results.
It is not a labor intensive
PARTICIPATORY
RESEARCH
Concerns large populations

There must be sufficient time allowed for the
research process to deal with the complexity
of the problem.
It calls for a method which allows for reflection
done jointly by the researchers and members
of a culture where the research is done.
It requires that the research process must be
permanent sequence of statement, action
reflection, and analysis.
PARTICIPATORY RESARCH- QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Example:
The implementation of the
Comprehensive Land Reform Program
in a certain Province in Central Luzon.
DOCUMENTARY
ANALYSIS
Analyzing written records and documents
to solve a problem.
Examples:
Enrolment Data as Influenced by Economic
Variables
Analyzing English Grade of different Groups
of students(Grades taken from registrars
office are also documentary data)
DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
Generally, it is not an in- depth

If they are grades, then data are study
easily obtained.
Similarly, if data come from hospital Most of the time, it is only
, government offices, or any
descriptive.
secondary documentary data
It is not labor intensive.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
METHOD
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Definition
It is a collection of research designs

which use manipulation and controlled
testing to understand causal process.
Generally, one or more variables are
manipulated to determine their effect
on a dependent variable.
Characteristics
It has two important and necessary actors the controlled and

the experimental variables
The experimental, or the independent variable is manipulated

and applied to a dependent variable, while the latter is held
constant.
The effect of the independent variable on the dependent

variable is measured and is usually the creation measure for an
experimental design.
Experimental designs are usually numeric and caters to

sophisticated statistical design
Usually, experimental designs are limited to small samples.
Experimental designs are labor intensive since it is done in the

laboratory.
TWO GROUPS OF EXPERIMENTAL

DESIGNS
1.
2.
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP
CONTROL GROUP
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
1.
2.
3.
MANIPULATION
CONTROL
RANDOMIZATION
DIFFERENT MATCHING METHODS
Person-to-person matching
Matching Groups
Ranking Method
Homogenous Group
Using subjects as their own controls
ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE (ANCOVA)
One of the uses of Analysis of

Covariance
is
when
using
two
experiment groups and there is no
particular method to put them in initial
form.
DIFFERENT EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

A. PRE-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Design No. 1: ONE-SHOT CASE STUDY
Design No. 2: THE SINGLE GROUP PRE AND POSTTEST DESIGN
Design No. 3: THE STATIC GROUP COMPARISON
Design No. 4: THE PARALLEL-EQUATED TWO GROUP
DESIGN
B. TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Design no. 5 The Pre-Post test Control
Group
Design no. 6 The Solomon Four Group Design
Design no. 7 The Post-test only Control Group
Design
C. QUASI EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Design no. 8 The Time-Series Experiment
Design no. 9 Counterbalance Design
Factorial Design
ANOVA (Analysis of Variance)
Internal And External Validity
Threats of Internal and External Validity
The Pre-experimental
Design
Design No. 1 (One Shot Case
Study)
- Considers only one group exposed to
the experimental variable.
a. X
b. O
Where X = Treatment
O = Post-Test
PRE- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Design No. 2 (Single Group Pre and Post Test Design

sometimes, this is viewed as a quasi-experimental single
group design with Pre and Post Test where variables are
more visible.
O (1) Pre-test
X
Experimental Variable
O (2) Post-test
Advantages:
>One does not have to worry about controlled variables.
>The method is not difficult and data are accessible.
Disadvantages:
>It is not a very sophisticated method of research.
It is difficult to prepare the pre and post test for they have to
undergo validation.
PRE- EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Design No. 3 (Static Group

Comparison)
this is a design in which a group which
has experience X for the purpose of
establishing the effects of X.
Design No. 4 (Parallel-Equated Two
Group Design)
- this method is similar to Design No. 3 but
they differ in purpose. They involve two
groups: the experimental and control group,
which are not usually random samples.
The True Experimental

Design
The true experimental designs control

nearly all sources of internal and
external validity.
What is internal and External validity?

Internal Validity
Is a crucial measure in quantitative studies,
where it ensures that a researcher's
experiment design closely follows the
principle of cause and effect.
(https. explorable.com.independentvariable)
TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
External Validity
External validityis about generalization: To
what extent can an effect in research, be
generalizedto populations, settings,
treatment variables, and measurement
variables (https. explorable.com.independentvariable)
Design no. 5. The Pre-Post Test Control Group
The design involves two groups, both of which
are formed by random assignment. Both groups
are pre-tested and post tested but only one
group is given the experimental treatment.
Design no. 5. The Pre-Post Test

Control Group
R O (1) X (2)
R O (3) - (4)
Where
R
O(1) -random assignment
O(2) -experimental pre-test
O(3) -control pre-test
O(4) -experimental post test
X
-treatment
Design no. 6. The Solomon Four-Group Design
This design has the highest prestige

since it has the greatest validity.
Extension of Pre and Post test
Two groups are pre and post tested;
two groups are post tested; two groups
have treatments
Two
groups
have
experimental
treatments
Design no. 6. The Solomon Four-Group Design
The design can be illustrated as follows
R
R
R
R
1.
2.
3.
4.
O
O
O
O
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
X
X
X
X
O
O
O
O
(2)
(2)
(2)
(2)
O (1) and O (2)

O (1) and O (2)
O (1) and O (2)
O (1) and O (2)
The data generated by this design are

computed using two way Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) on post test result
Computation are analyzed as follows
If the post test mean of the experiment
group is significantly greater than mean of
first control group and the post test mean is
significantly higher than on the second group
If the average of differences between post
test scores of the experimental group and
those of the first group, second and third are
the same, the experiment must have
comparable effect.
Design No. 7. The Post test only

Control Group Design
In this design, there are two groups, one

of them are receiving the experimental
group.
Both are post tested but not pre tested
It is commonly confused with Design no. 3
but its difference the latter randomization
in Design no.7
Design No. 7. The Post test only Control

Group Design
The design illustrated by the following diagram:

R
R
Where:
x O (1)
x O (2)
R = random assignment
X =treatment
O (1) =experimental post
O (2)=control post test
QUASI - EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Design no. 8. The Time Series Experiment

This design is elaboration of the one group pretest-post test design involving just one group
It is pre tested four times and post tested four
times as well
The multi testing prevents the incidence of
maturation, testing and regression as threats in
validity
Pre-test treatment interaction may be also a
validity problem.
A variation of time series involving addition of a
control group
Design no. 8. The Time Series

Experiment
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7
O1
O2
O3
O4
x
O8
O1
O2
O3
O4 x O5
O5
O6
O6
O7
O8
O7
O8
Design no. 9 Counterbalance

Designs
Is an experimental design which the

experimental treatments are arranged in
different sequence, in rotation method,
and counterbalanced method.
Ends as called Latin Square Arrangement.
Design no. 9 Counterbalance Designs
Latin Square can be rearranged by
this:
Treatment of Data
To
determine
the
effectiveness
of
the
independent variable used in the experiment, the
average treatment is compared
The post test scores for all given the first
treatment can be compared with all the post test
scores and so on with the rest treatment
Latin Square experimental Design.

Can be used to determined the effectiveness of
the three treatments or three experimental
variables.
Design no. 10.

The non- Equivalent Control Group Design
OxO
OxO
This design is considered as one of the most
widely used in educational research
Consisting two groups, pre and post test each
group
Broken lines between two groups suggest there
has no randomization.
It is commonly used with groups with
participants naturally such in a classroom
D. Factoral Designs
Factoral design are extensions of the true
experimental designs
Design 5 and 7 are made factoral by adding
more groups to take care of treatments and
more variables
Allows the researcher to measure not only the
main effect of each independent variable on
the dependent variable but also the interaction
effects of these independent variables
Ex.
2 kinds treatment on children in 2 mental ability
groups
2 kinds of production on two types of ropes.
1.
2.
3.
The purpose of factoral design is to evaluate

whether the effects of an experimental
variable are generalizable across all levels
of control variable.
The number of variables and levels will
depend on the problem.
There are four or more factors studied
for the following reasons
Posing more factors involve more subjects
Statistical Analysis after the treatment will
be difficult to compute
Interactions between and among variables
will be difficult to interpret.
ANOVA Analysis of Variance

ANOVA- can be used for both descriptive
and experimental design
ANOVA- One way classification

Ex. Descriptive- Comparing the performance
of three classes
Experimental- Determining the effects of
three kinds of chemicals, A, B, and C on the
strength of same types of ropes
Experimental: chemicals, A, B, and C
Control: same type of ropes
ANOVA: two way (Two Variables)

Example 1: Descriptive- Finding effects of age
and gender on English test
Example 2.Experiemental-Effects on fruits of
plants,
Using 1.) types of cultivation
2. Different volumes of water
ANOVA: three way (Three Variables)
Example 1. Descriptive Effects 1. age. 2. gender

3. socio economic status on licensure examination
Example 2. Experimental: Effects of three kinds of
disinfectant A, B, and Con staphycoccus.
Internal and External

Validity
A. Internal Validity
The Threats to Internal Validity

1. History
2. Maturation
3. Testing
4. Instrumentation
5. Statistical Regression
6. Selection
7. Mortality
8. Selection Maturation Interaction
External Validity
The Threats to external Validity
1. Pre-Test Treatment Interaction2. Selection Treatment Interaction
3. Specify Variables
4. Reactive Arrangement
5. Multiple Treatment Interference
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Used for special kinds of researches or

Concerned with the environment or setting where the

The general frame of reference that directly influences

Having the purpose of:

Founded in 1940 by Marvin Farber

PHENOMENOLOGICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Hussels on certain absolute

PHENOMENOLOGICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

In short, the phenomenological

PHENOMENOLOGICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

labor No generalization can

A method that would change negative

is an act of exploration and

APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Among its features are:

APPRECIATIVE INQUIRY - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Systematic collection and evaluation of

Deals with past events and interprets

HISTORICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

To make people aware of what has

Learn from past failures and successes

HISTORICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Steps in Historical Method

Formulating the problem

HISTORICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

HISTORICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Primary vs. Secondary sources

HISTORICAL - QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

not It develops less creativity since

Documents are strong evidence Researcher cannot alter the

Generally empirical which means a research

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A study involving descriptive information

CASE STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Uses of Case Studies

Provides further the investigation with hypothesis, that

Gives out unique situations, to give out new information.

Provides new insights, helps modify pre-existing beliefs, &

Demonstrates the effectiveness of a certain theoretical

CASE STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Limitations of Case Studies

Cant generalize the results to the

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

an activity in which many people are asked a

other instruments prepared by the researcher to

SURVEYS - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Used to gather relatively limited data from

happen or change together)

SURVEYS - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

It is a writing research report There is a possibility that

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A reliable information about a group of

Two methods of Developmental

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Two Methods of Developmental Studies

DEVELOPMENTAL STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

A small-sized sample can be It is also not possible to give

It gives detailed and accurate

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD: QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Assessment or evaluation studies are those which refer to

ASSESSMENT/EVALUATION STUDIES - QUANTITATIVE

The findings have direct use There might be difficulty in