Modern Control

Engineering
Fifth Edition

Katsuhiko Ogata

Chapter 1
Introduction to Control Systems and
Mathematical Review
Edited by: Dr LimTY
Faculty of Mechanical UiTM, Penang

Overview
- Definition and Concepts
- Review of Mathematical Equation
- Elements of Control System
- Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems
- Types of Controllers and Control Actions

Learning Outcomes

Upon completing this Chapter students should be able to

understand the concept, mathematical equations & elements
of Control systems

Definition and Concepts

Definition and Concepts

SYSTEM
A system is a combination of
components that act together and
perform a certain objective. A system is
not limited to physical ones.

CONTROLLED
SYSTEM
A system in which some physical quantity
is controlled by regulating an energy
source.

Review of Mathematical Equation

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
Chapter 2: System Model Representation
Chapter 3: Mathematical modelling of engineering systems
LAPLACE TRANSFORM
Chapter 2: System Model Representation
Chapter 4: System Performance Analysis Time response analysis
COMPLEX VARIABLES & COMPLEX FUNCTIONS
Chapter 5: System Performance Analysis Frequency response
MATRICES (EIGENVALUES & EIGENVECTORS)
Chapter 6: Analysis of Control Systems using State Space method

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

Differential equations generally involve derivatives and

integrals of the dependant variables with respect to the
independent variable.

Example: A shock absorber system of a car. It can be

represented in differential equation as :-

where R is the resistance, L the inductance, C the

capacitance, i(t) the current and v(t) the applied
voltage. The dependent variable i(t) is determined by
solving the equation.

Continue

In general, a differential equation of nth-order is

written as

Which is also known as a linear ordinary differential

equation if the coefficients a0 , a1 , ,an-1 are not a
function of y(t).

LAPLACE TRANSFORM

Laplace transform is used to convert from time domain

to s-domain.

Working with
complicated.

In analyzing and designing a control system it is easier

to work in s-domain.

Laplace transform is defined as;

Where = + , a complex variable.

differential

equation

is

rather

Example 1.2

Consider the exponential function

where is real constant

Solution

Laplace Transform Table

Table 2.3 (continued) Important

Laplace Transform Pairs

Inverse Laplace Transformation

Using Partial Fraction Method

Given the Laplace transform F(s), the operation of obtaining f(t) is termed
the inverse Laplace Transformation and is denoted by:
()
( = 1 [()]

Inverse Laplace Transform is used when we want to convert from s-domain

to time domain.

The inverse Laplace transform of rational functions are normally carried out
using partial-fraction expansion and the Laplace transform table.

Case 1: Simple poles

If all the poles of G(s) are simple and real, then G(s) can be written
as

Applying partial-fraction expansion, the equation can be written as

The numerator of each fraction is called the residue. is called

the
residue of G(s) for the pole = .

The inverse transform is the written as

Example 1.3

Consider the function

Solution

Case 2: Multiple-order poles

If r of the n poles is identical, G(s) is written as

Then G(s) can be expanded as Then G(s) can be expanded

as

The (n-r) coefficients K-s1, K-s2, , K-s(nr) which correspond

to simple poles may be evaluated as explained before. The
coefficients A1 Ar are evaluated as follows:

Example 1.4

Consider the function

Solution

Case 3: Simple complexconjugate poles

Suppose that G(s) contains a pair of complex poles:

The corresponding coefficients of these poles are

Example 1.5

Considering transfer function G(s)

Solution

COMPLEX VARIABLES &

COMPLEX FUNCTIONS

Complex Variables Concept

A complex variable denoted by s consists of two

components: a real component x and an imaginary
axis component y. Graphically, the real component
of s is represented by a x-axis in the horizontal
direction, and the imaginary component is
measured along the vertical jy-axis.
Using notation = -1, all numbers in
engineering calculations can be re-written as
=+
Complex Number

Complex s-plane

Imaginary unit

Continue..

A complex number can be written in rectangular form or in polar form

as follows:
i. Rectangular forms
= +
= (cos + sin )
ii. Polar forms
= ||
=
|| ||

In converting complex numbers to polar form from rectangular, we use

To convert complex number to rectangular form from polar, we employ

Complex Function Concept

Poles are the value
of s that will make
the function F(s)
become infinity.
Zeros are the value
of s that will make
the function F(s)
become zero.

c) Poles and zeros of a

Function

In complex
function analysis,
we are interested
in Single-Valued
Function that can
uniquely
determine the
value of s. For
instance, given the
function
b ) Single Valued-Function

A complete
function F(s), a
function of s,
has a real
component and
imaginary
component or
a) Complex Function

d) Singularities of a Function
The singularities of a function are the points in the s-plane at which
the function or its derivatives do not exist. A pole is the most
common of singularities and plays a very important role in studies of
classical control theory.

Elements of Control System

Terms & Definition

Control
system

A system is a combination of components

that act together and perform a certain
objective. A system is not limited to
physical ones.

Controlled
variable

Quantity or condition that is measured and

controlled.

Manipulat
ed
variable

Quantity or condition that is varied by the

controller so as to affect the value of the
controlled variable.

Plant

A plant is a piece of equipment, perhaps

just a set of machine parts functioning
together, the purpose of which to perform
a particular operation. Any physical object
to be controlled (such as heating furnace,
a chemical reactor etc) is called a plant.

Terms & Definition

Processes

A process can be defined as a natural, progressively

continuing operation or development marked by a
series of gradual changes that succeed one another
in a relatively fixed way and lead towards a
particular result or end.

Disturbances

A disturbance is a signal which tends to adversely

affect the value of the output of the system. There
are internal and external disturbances.

Feedback
control

Feedback control is an operation which in the

presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the
difference between the output of a system and the
reference input and which does so on the basis of
the difference.

Example 1: Speed control

system

Example 2: Temperature
control system

Example 3: Block diagram of an

engineering organizational system

Open-loop and Closed-loop Systems

Openloop
systems

Control
systems
which the output
no effect upon
control action
i.e. the output
neither measured
fed
back
comparison with
input.

in
has
the
is
nor
for
the

ClosedMaintains a prescribed
relationship between the
loop
output and the reference systems
input.
An actuating error signal is
fed to the controller to
reduce the error and bring
the output of the system to
a desired value.

1.2 Comparing Open-loop and

Closed-loop systems
SYSTEMS

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

OPEN-LOOP

Simple construction and ease of

maintenance
Less expansive
There is no stability problem
Convenient when the output is
hard to measure or economically
not feasible

System response is very

sensitive to external
disturbance and internal
variations in system
parameters
Recalibration is necessary to
maintain required output
quality

CLOSEDLOOP /
Feedback (FB)
Control System

Makes the system response

relatively insensitive to external
disturbance and internal
variations in system parameters
Increased accuracy by ability to
reproduce output with varied
input

Risk instability
Complexity in analysis and
implementation
Expensive

Types of Controllers and Control Actions

1. Two-position or on-off controller

2. Proportional (P) controller
3. Integral (I) controller
4. Proportional-Integral (PI) controller
5. Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller
6. Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID)
controller

Two-Position / On-Off Control

Action

The controller is essentially just a switch which is activated by the error

signal and supplies just an on-off correcting signal

Relatively simple and inexpensive

Widely used in both industrial and domestic control systems

The output signal from the controller m(t) remains at either a maximum
or minimum value, depending on whether the actuating error signal is
positive or negative.

Two-position controllers are generally electrical devices, electric

solenoid-operated valve or pneumatic proportional controller (high gain).

Block diagram of an on-off

controller

Differential gap = the range

through which the actuating error
signal must move before the
switching occurs

Example: Liquid-level control

system

(a) Liquid-level control system; (b) electromagnetic valve.

Level h(t)-versus-t curve for the system shown in

Figure (a).

Proportional Control Action

The controller produces a control action that is proportional to the error.

The bigger the error signal the bigger the correcting signal.

Thus as the error is reduced, the amount of correction is reduced and the
correcting process slows down.

Integral Control Action

The controller produces a control action that is

proportional to the integral of the error with time.

Thus a constant error signal will produce an

increasing correcting signal.

The correction continues to increase as long the

error persists.

The integral controller can be considered to be

looking-back, summing all the errors and thus
responding to changes that have occurred.

Proportional plus derivative

(PD) Control Action

Proportional plus integral (PI)

Control Action

Proportional plus integral plus

derivative (PID) Control Action

The standard form of PID controller is as follows