Bahria University, Karachi

Campus
Department of Earth & Environmental Sciences

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
VARIOUS THEORIES

GEO-230 GEOTECTONICS, Lecture 5, MJK

Continental Drift
The theory of Global tectonics / Plate tectonics has
largely been developed since 1967.
But the ideas concerning mobilist view of the Earth
extends back considerably longer.
Ever since the coastlines of the Atlantic ocean were first
mapped, people have been intrigued by the similarity of
the coastlines of Americas and of Europe and Africa.
Perhaps, first to note the similarity and suggest ancient
separation was Abraham Ortelius in 1596.
Francis Bacon, 1620.
Bacon has been erroneously credited as the first to
have noticed the similarity or fit between the Atlantic
coastlines of south America and Africa , and to suggest
that they were once together and had drifted apart.

Continued: Continental Drift

Francis Placet, a French prior, 1668---Flood of Noh;
destruction of Atlantis.
Theodor Christoph Lilienthal, Professor of Theology
(Germany), 1756, related to biblical catastrophism.
German Explorer, Alexander Von Humbolt, 1601 and 1645.
He noted the geologic and geometric similarities between
the opposing coasts of the Atlantic----catastrophism.
Antonio Snider, An American, 1858. Postulated drift but
multiple catastrophism, suggested pre-drift reconstruction.
Gradual
replacement
of
Catastrophism
by
Uniformitarianism of the British Geologist James Hutton
and Charles Lyell in 19th century.
Uniformitarian concept of drift: It was first suggested by
F.B. Taylor, an American physicist, in1910 and Alfred
Wegener, a German meteorologist, in1912.

Sniders Reconstruction
(1858)

Continued: Continental Drift

Drift is taking place today and has taken place in
the past at least 100-200 Ma of Earths history.
Drift was invoked to account for geologic and
geometric similarities between the trailing edges
of the continents around the Atlantic and Indian
oceans and the formation of the young fold
mountain system

EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT,

1) CONTINENTAL RECONSTRUCTIONS
As early as 16th century it had been noted that
eastern and western coastlines of the Atlantic
Ocean appeared to fit together like the pieces of
a jigsaw puzzle. Visible on map : Geometric fit of
the continental outlines.

 Eulers theorem
It states: The movement of a portion of a sphere across its surface is
uniquely defined by a single angular rotation about a pole of rotation.
Geometric reconstruction of continents
Reconstruction of continents around the Atlantic
Reconstruction of Gondwana

GEOLOGIC EVIDENCE
Fold belts: The continuity of the Appalachian fold belt of eastern
North America with the Caledonian fold belt of north Europe.
Provenance of the zircon mineral in the sediments lies to thef west
in the Atlantic
Age Provinces: The correlation of the patterns of the ages across the
southern Atlantic indicates matching of both Precambrian cratons
and rocks of Paleozoic age.
Igneous Provinces: Distinctive igneous rocks can be traced between
continents, such as the belt of Mesozoic dolerite which extends
through southern Africa, Antarctica and Tasmania, and Precambrian
anorthosites through Africa, Medagascar and India.
- Stratigraphic Sections: Distinctive stratigraphic sequences can also
be correlated between adjacent continents, such as sections of
Gondwana, terrestrial sequence of of sediments of late Paleozoic

age. Marker beds of tillite, coal, and sediments containing

fossils of Glossopteris and Gangamopteris flora can be
correlated through south America,South Africa, Antarctica,
India and Australia.
- Metallogenic Provinces: Regions containing Mn, Fe, Au, and tin
can be matched across adjacent coastlines on such
reconstructions.

3)

PALEOCLIMATOLOGIC EVIDENCE

Ignoring
small
microclimatic
regions
dependent upon rare combinations of other
phenomenon, it appears likely that the
study of climatic indicators in ancient rocks
can be used to infer their ancient latitude.
Consequently, Paleoclimatology, the study
of past climates may be used to
demonstrate that continents have drifted at
least in a N-S sense.
It must be realized that the Earth is
presently in an interglacial period.

The important paleolatitude indicators are listed

below:
1. Carbonates and reef deposits
Restricted to warm water within 30 degree of the
equator at the present day, temperatures fall 25-30
degrees.
2. Evaporites
Form under hot, arid conditions in regions where
evaporation exceeds seawater influx / precipitation,
and are usually found in basins bordering a sea with
limited or intermittent connection to the ocean
. At the present day they do not form near the equator
. They form in arid subtropical high pressure zones
between 10 and 50 degrees.
. Fossil evaporites also formed in the same conditions.

3. Red beds
They include arkoses, sandstones, shales and
conglomerates containing hematite.
They form under oxidizing conditions with
adequate supply of iron.
A hot climate is required.
At present day they are restricted to latitudes of
less than 30 degree.
4. Coal
Coal is formed by the accumulation and
degradation of vegetation where rate of
accumulation exceeds that of removal and decay.
This occurs either in tropical rain forests where
growth rates are very high

-or temperate forests where growth rates are slow

but decay is inhibited by cold winters.
-Thus, coals may form in low or high latitudes,
each type having a distinct flora.
In Wegeners compilation of paleoclimatic data,
the Carboniferous coals are of low latitude type,
whereas the
-Pemean coals of Gondwana are of the high
latitude type.
-Younger coals are typically high latitude type.
5. Phosphorites
-At the present day phosphorites form within 45
degrees of the equator along the western margins
of the continents where upwelling of the cold,
nutrient-rich deep water occur, or in arid zones at
low latitudes along e-w seaways.

6. Bauxite and laterite

-These Al and Fe oxides only form in strongly oxidizing
environments. They only originate under conditions of
tropical or subtropical weathering.
7. Desert deposits
-The dune bedding of desert sandstones can be used
to infer the ancient direction of the prevailing winds.
-Comparison of these with the direction of the modern
wind systems found at their present latitudes can
indicate if the continent has undergone any rotation.
8-Glacial deposits
-Galaciers and icecaps are generally limited to regions
within about 30 degree of the poles at the present day.

9) PALEONTOLOGIC EVIDENCE FOR

CONTINENTALD DRIFT
Continental drift has affected the distribution of
ancient animals and plants by creating barriers to
their dispersal.
Past distribution of tetrapods
Remains of the early Permian reptile Mesosaurus
are found in Brazil and southern Africa.
5000 km of Atlantic ocean.
Distribution of Cambrian trilobites strongly
suggests that in Lower Paleozoic times there
existed several continents separated by major
ocean basins.
The similarity between ammonite species now
found in India, Madagascar, and Africa indicates
that only shallow seas could have existed
between these regions in Jurassic.

 Paleobotany similarity reveals the pattern of continental

fragmentation.
Before break-up, all the Gondwana continents supported
Glossopteris and Gangamopteris floras in PermoCarboniferous times. These floras are believed to be cold
climate forms.
At the same time a varied tropical flora existed in Laurasia.
A less obvious form of dispersal barrier is climate as the
latitudinal motions of the continents can create climatic
conditions unsuitable for organisms.
Indeed, relative continental movements can modify many
things, such as ocean currents, mean annual temperatures,
etc.
The diversity of species is also controlled by continental
drift.
Diversity increases towards equator.

 Diversity also increases with fragmentation.

Continental suturing leads to the homogenization
of faunas by cross-migration and the extinction of
any less well-adapted groups whcih face stronger
competition.
Conversely, continued rifting leads to the isolation
of faunas which then follow their own distinct
evolutionary development.