MATERIALS AND HARDWARE

MODULE 06

Introduction to Materials
How are Engineering materials
classified?
Metals
Polymers
Ceramics
Glass
Composite
Wood

Metals
Pure Metals
Elements which come from a particular
area of the periodic table.

Alloys
Contain more than one element
Their properties can be changed by
changing the elements present in the alloy
Ex:
Steel (Fe+C), Stainless Steel
(Fe+C+Cr+Ni), Gold Jewellery (Au+Cu)

Contd..

Metals

Have good electrical and thermal conductivity.

Many metals have high strength, stiffness and have
good ductility.
Some metals are magnetic (Fe, Co, Ni etc)
At extremely low temperatures, some metals and
intermetallic compounds become superconductors.
Some metals alloys such as those based on Al have
low densities and are used in Aerospace
applications.
Many metal alloys have high fracture toughness.

Polymers
Polymer has a repeating structure, usually
based on a Carbon backbone.
Useful because they are light weight, corrosion
resistant, easy to process at low temperatures,
generally cheap.
Low strength and high toughness.
Stregth is often improved using reinforced
composites.
Poor conductors of electricity and heat/ good
insulators.

Ceramics
Often broadly defined as any inorganic
nonmetallic material.
They have high melting temperature, low
density, high strength, stiffness, hardness,
wear & corrosion resistance
Good electrical and thermal insulators.
Superconductors at very low temperatures.
Ceramic and glasses have one major
drawback (Brittleness)

Glass
Amorphous, inorganic, non metallic
materials.
High range of applications (from bottles to
fibre optics).
Very brittle

Composites
Formed from two or more types of materials
(concrete, GFRP, Plywood, MDF).
Qualities are superior to those of individuals.
High tensile strength and Youngs modulus.

Structure of Atoms, Atomic

Theories, Atomic Bonding in
Materials

Atomic Structure
All the materials are composed of very
small particles called atoms. An atom
consists of a center nucleus of
positive charge around which small
negatively charged particles called
electrons revolve in different paths or
orbits.

Atomic Structures

Atomic Structure (Fundamental

Concepts)
Atom consists of a very small nucleus (Protons and
neutrons and is encircled by moving electrons).
Both electrons and protons are electrically
charged; (-) for electrons and (+) for protons;
neutrons are neutral.
Each chemical element is characterized by the
number of protons in the nucleus, or the atomic
number (Z).
The atomic mass (A) is the sum of masses of
protons and neutrons within the nucleus.
Some elements have two or more different atomic
masses, which are called isotopes.

Types of Bonding
Bonding

Primary

Secondary

Types of Bonds
S/N Materi
o
al
Metals
1

Ceramic

Polymer
s

Dominant Bond
(Who Controls
Material)

Other
Bonds

Metalic

Covalent

Covalent/ Ionic

Ionic/

Van Der Walls/

Covalent

Hydrogen

Covalent

Ionic Bonding
Found in compounds that composed of both
metallic and nonmetallic elements; elements that
are situated at the horizontal extremities of the
periodic table.
Atoms of a metallic element easily give up their
valence electrons to the nonmetallic atoms.
In the process all the atoms acquire stable or inert
gas configurations and, an electrical charge.
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is the classic ionic material.

Periodic Table

Ionic Bonds

Covalent Bonds

The Structure of Crystalline Solids

Fundamental Concepts
A crystalline material is one in which the
atoms are situated in a repeating or periodic
array over large atomic distances.
Each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor
atoms.
All metals, many ceramic materials, certain
polymers form crystalline structures under
normal solidification conditions.
Some of the properties of crystalline solids
depend on the crystal structure of the
material.

FCC Structure

BCC Structure

Unit Cells
The small groups of atoms of crystalline
structures which form a repetitive pattern.
The crystal structures are often subdivided
into small repeat entities called unit cells.

Crystal Defects
Point defects
Line defects or dislocations
Planar defects
Bulk defects

Point Defects
Defects related to a single
atom
Specific for crystalline
materials

Line Defects or Dislocations

Related to line of atoms.
Specific for crystalline materials.
There are two types of dislocations.
Edge dislocation
Screw dislocation

Edge Dislocation

Screw Dislocation

Edge Dislocation Vs Screw

Dislocation

Planar Defects
Two dimensional defects.
Plane of atoms is moved.
Grain boundary defects.

Bulk Defects
Three dimensional/ volumetric defects.
Common for all material types.

Mechanical Properties of
Materials

Application of Forces and

Deformations of Materials

Tensile Test
Mechanical properties of a material
are studied by performing a tensile
test.
Tensile test speciman

The speciman will be subjected to a

progressively increasing tensile force until it
fractures.

Tensile Test
There are four important stages in the
testing.
Original speciman
Deformed speciman
Necked speciman
Fractured speciman

 From the test, Force-Extension curve is

obtained.
F

 Force-Extension curve is then converted to a

Stress-Strain curve.

Stress Strain Curve

Typical Engineering Stress Strain

Curve

Stress-Strain Diagram of Steel

Stress-Strain Diagram for Brittle

Materials

Elasticity
All materials show temporary deformation to
a certain extent Elastic deformation.
This property of the material is known as
Elasticity.
Elasticity of most of the materials gives a
straight line in the stress-strain diagram
known as Linear Elastic Materials.

Elasticity Contd...
Elasticity of some other materials does not
give a straight line in the - diagram.
They are known as non linear elastic
materials
(ex: rubber)

Elasticity of materials is accounted to the

stretching of atomic bonds.

Elastic Modulus
For linear elastic materials

; E

E is known as Elastic Modulus or Youngs

Modulus.
E of steel is 2x1011 Pa

Plasticity
The deformation becomes permanent
beyond a certain stress levels in metals.
It is known as plastic deformation and
the property is known as plasticity.
Plastic deformation begins at the yield
stress.

Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation in metals occurs due
to a phenomenon known as slip
(relative displacement of atomic planes).

Yield Drop in Steel

 Question 1:
Why do you observe a yield drop in the
stress-strain curve of steel? Relate your
answer with the theory of Cottrell
Atmosphere.

Ductile and Brittle Materials

Ductile Materials
Materials that exhibit plastic deformation
(Most metals are ductile)

Brittle Materials
Materials that do not have plasticity (glass,
cast iron)

Ductility
Ability of a metal to undergo plastic
deformation is defined as ductility.

pf
Plastic strain at fracture
measure of ductility.

is a

Ductility of Cu is greater than that of

steel.

Ductility Contd...
Ductility can be measured by:
Percentage elongation
L f Lo

x 100%
Lo

A f Ao
Percentage reduction in area

x 100%
Ao

Malleability
Ability of a material to undergo plastic
deformation in compression.
All ductile materials are malleable but
malleable materials are not necessary
to be ductile always.
A malleable material is preferred in
process such as forging, rolling & rivets
heading (hammering).

Strength
Ability of a material to withstand the applied
stresses without failure is defined as strength
(maximum stress that can be applied on a
material).
Strength of a brittle material is given by its
fracture stress.
Yield strength is taken as the strength for a
ductile material.

Tensile Test for Brittle Materials

It is almost impossible to do a tensile test on
brittle materials, as they tend to break in the
grips.
Tensile strength of a brittle material is therefore
calculated from its MOR (Modulus Of Rupture).
Tensile strength x 1.3 = MOR
MOR is determined by perfoming bending
test.

Bending Test

P
d
L

3PL
MOR
2
2bd

Compression Test

Proof Stress
Stress-Strain diagram of most metals
does not give a clear cut yield point.

Proof Stress Contd...

In such cases yield stress could not be found.
As such, proof stress is found and used in
place of the yield stress.
Hence, 0.1% proof stress is found.
0.1% proof
stress is the stress that is
required to cause a plastic strain of 0.1%
(=0.001).

Proof Stress Contd...

=0.002

Work Hardening
Strength (and hardness) of a metal
increases as a result of plastic
deformation.
This is known as work hardening or
strain hardening.
Effect of work hardening on strength is
demonstrated by a tensile test.

YS2

YS1

Necking
At the UTS a localized deformation
begins in the speciman.

Engineering Diagram Vs True

Diagram

Ferrous and Non Ferrous Alloys

Types of Metal Alloys

Metal alloys are often grouped into two classes.
Ferrous
Nonferrous.

Ferrous alloys, those in which iron is the

principal constituent, include steels and cast
irons.
Non-ferrous alloys - all alloys that are not iron
based.

Ferrous Alloys
Those of which iron is the prime constituent.
Produced in larger quantities than any other
metal type.
Especially
important
construction materials.

as

engineering

Ferrous Alloys
Their widespread use is accounted for by three
factors:
Iron-containing compounds exist in abundant
quantities within the earths crust.
Metallic iron and steel alloys may be produced
using
relatively
economical
extraction,
refining, alloying, and fabrication techniques.
Ferrous alloys are extremely versatile, in that
they may be tailored to have a wide range of
mechanical and physical properties.
The principal disadvantage of many ferrous
alloys is their susceptibility to corrosion.

Classification Scheme for Various

Ferrous Alloys

Fe C Phase Diagram

75

Steels
Iron-Carbon
alloys
that
may
contain
appreciable concentrations of other alloying
elements.
The mechanical properties are sensitive to
the content of carbon, which is normally less
than 2.0 wt%.
More common steels are classified according
to carbon concentration (low, medium, and
high carbon types).
Subclasses also exist within each group
according to the concentration of other
alloying elements.

Stainless Steels
Highly resistant to corrosion (rusting) in a variety
of
environments,
especially
the
ambient
atmosphere.
Predominant alloying element is Cr (at least 11
wt% Cr).
Corrosion resistance may also be enhanced by Ni
and Mo additions.
A wide range of mechanical properties combined
with excellent corrosion resistance make stainless
steels very versatile in their applicability.

Cast Irons
C contents above 2.14 wt% (in practice most cast
irons contain between 3.0 and 4.5 wt% C).
Alloys within this composition range become
completely liquid at temperatures between
approximately 11500C and (21000F and ), which is
lower than for steels.
Thus, they are easily melted and amenable to
casting.
Some cast irons are very brittle, and casting is the
most convenient fabrication technique.
The most common cast iron types are gray,
nodular, white, malleable, and compacted graphite.

Fe C Phase Diagram

82

Gray Cast Iron

C and Si contents vary between 2.5 and 4.0
wt% and 1.0 and 3.0 wt%, respectively.
For most of these cast irons, the graphite
exists in the form of flakes (similar to corn
flakes)
Because of these graphite flakes, a fractured
surface takes on a gray appearance, hence
its name.
Mechanically, gray iron is comparatively
weak and brittle in tension.

Gray Cast Iron

The tips of the graphite flakes are sharp and
pointed, and may serve as points of stress
concentration when an external tensile stress
is applied.
Strength and ductility are much higher under
compressive loads.
Used for base structures for machines and
heavy equipment that are exposed to
vibrations.
In addition, gray irons exhibit a high
resistance to wear.

Gray Cast Iron

Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

Adding a small amount of Mg and/or cerium
to the gray iron before casting.
Graphite still forms, but as nodules or spherelike particles instead of flakes.
Castings are stronger and much more ductile
than gray iron.
Ductile iron has mechanical characteristics
approaching those of steel.
Applications include valves, pump bodies,
crankshafts, gears, and other automotive and
machine components.

Ductile (or Nodular) Iron

Aluminium and Aluminium

Alloys

Properties of Aluminium

Light in mass
Soft and ductile
High resistance to corrosion
No coloured salts are formed to stain
surfaces.
Good electrical and thermal conductivities
Nontoxic (used for cooking utensils)
Lose part of their strength at elevated
temperatures.

Aluminium Alloys
Classify into two categories
Non heat treatable
Stength depends on the hardening effect of
elements such as Mn, Si, Fe and Mg.
Not subjected to heat treatment

Heat treatable
Treatments include solution heat treatment,
quenching
and
precipitation
or
age
hardening.

Wrought Aluminium and Aluminium

Alloy Designation System
Aluminium 99% and greater

1xxx

Aluminium alloys grouped by major alloying

elements
Copper

2xxx

Manganese

3xxx

Silicon

4xxx

Magnesium

5xxx

Magnesium and Silicon

6xxx

Zinc

7xxx

Other elements

8xxx

 2nd digit is usually zero.

Non zero numbers are used to indicate some
modification to the original alloy.
If 2nd digit is zero Indicate original alloy
If 2nd digit is 1-9 intentionally introduced
impurities.

In 1xxx last 2 digits indicate the purity of Al

If last 2 digits are zero Al 99%
If last 2 digits are 12 Al 99.12%

For other types, last 2 digits indicate the

particular alloy within the family.
Ex: 2024 means alloy number 24 within the Al-Cu
system or 2xxx

Effect of Alloying Elements

1xxx Series (Al)
Excellent corrosion resistance
High thermal and electrical conductivity
Excellent workability

2xxx Series (Al+Cu)

Require solution heat treatment to obtain optimum
properties.
Artificial aging to further increase the mechanical
properties, yield strength.

3xxx Series (Al+Mn)

Non heat treatable

Effect of Alloying Elements

(Contd..)
4xxx Series (Al+Si)
Lowering of the melting point without producing
brittleness.

5xxx Series (Al+Mg)

High strength non heat treatable alloy
Good welding characteristics
Good resistance to corrosion in marine atmosphere.

6xxx Series (Al+Si+Mg)

Good formability and corrosion resistance with
medium strength.

Effect of Alloying Elements

(Contd...)
7xxx Series (Al+Zn)
When coupled with Mg and Cu results in
heat treatable alloys of very high strength.
7075, 7050 and 7049 are the highest
strength alloys used in airframe structures
and for highly stressed parts.

Age Hardening
Strengthening a metal by introducing small
particles of another phase which barriers
dislocation motion.
Maximum hardness is achieved if the
properties can resist cutting by dislocations
and are too close to permit by-passing of
dislocations.

Cutting Through and By Passing of

Dislocations
Cutting through:
When precipitates are
too small.

Bowing and by pass:

When precipitates are
too strong to be cut
and inter particle space
become large.

Age Hardening Process

Al-Li Alloys
Developed recently for the aircraft, aerospace
industries.
Have relatively low densities (2.5 - 2.6 g/cm3)
High specific moduli (elastic modulus/ specific
gravity ratios)
Excellent fatigue, low-temperature toughness
properties.
May be precipitation hardened.
More costly to manufacture than conventional
Al alloys as a result of Lithiums chemical
reactivity.

Duralumin (Al-4%Cu)
2017-T4 Alloy which is called as duralumin.
Hardened by natural aging.
Widely used in aircraft industry.

Mg and Mg Alloys
Main properties
High strength to weight ratio
Excellent machinability
Relatively low cost

Other Properties and Applications

Produced in various forms including casting, sheet,
plate, forgings, bar and rod.
Both standard structural shapes and sections of
special design are made by the extrusion process.
Can be machined at higher speeds and at lower
costs.
Cast Mg alloys

Tensile strength upto about 280 Mpa

Yield strength upto about 160 Mpa

Wrought Mg alloys

Tensile strenghts upto about 360 Mpa

Yield strengths upto about 300 Mpa

The Yield strength, tensile strength and hardness of

Mg alloys decrease with Rising temperature.

Titanium Alloys
High strength to weight ratio.
Capable of operating at temperatures from sub zero to
600C.
For aero-engines
Blades, shafts and casings from the front fan to the last
stage of the high pressure compressor.

Airframes
Ti Alloys with strength up to 1200MPa
Landing gears and large wing beams.

Corrosion on Aircraft Materials

Corrosion on Aircraft Materials

Materials are primarily used for
their strength and tenacity.
They may readily suffer serious
damage
from
corrosion
unless
effectively protected.
Rate of corrosion attack can be
extremely
rapid
in
certain
environments.

Control and prevention of

corrosion is important in the design

Why the Corrosion prevention

on Aircraft is Important?
Corrosion may extend over an entire
metal surface.
Corrosion may penetrate locally to
form deep pits.
Corrosion
may
follow
the
grain
boundaries within the metal.
The weakening effect of corrosive
attack may be aggravated by stresses
in the metal and result in premature
failure of the component.

Anti Corrosive Protection

During
manufacture
and
assembly, a range of surface
treatments are applied.
Heat treatment to refine grain
structure.
Sacrificial coatings in the form of
plating and cladding to retard the
onset of corrosion.

Epoxy primers, special paint

finishes and the use of barrier

Methods of Surface Protection

There are many different types of
surface protection added to the basic
structural materials and hardware.
Cladding
Anodising
Chromating
Exterior Cleaning
Surface Cleaning

Cladding
Cu and Zn commonly alloyed with
Al for high strength skin and
component parts.
These suffer
corrosion.

extensively

from

Alclad (soft, highly corrosionresistant, pure Al skin) rolled onto

the face of each base alloy sheet,

Galvanic series

Anodising
Protects Al based alloys from
corrosion
(when
cladding
is
impractical).
An electrolytic treatment which
coats the host metal with a film
of oxide.
This film is hard, waterproof, airtight.
Permanently accept a coloured
dye for identification of some

Bonding the Anodized surfaces

The film acts as an insulator.
When bonding leads are to be
attached to an anodised part, the
surface treatment must be
carefully removed before the
bonding lead is attached.

Chromating

Chromate coatings are used to

protect Magnesium-based alloys,
zinc and its alloys.
Components are immersed in a
bath
containing
potassium
bichromate and results in a
yellowish coating on magnesium
alloys.

Exterior Cleaning
Special points are to be protected
from cleaning materials and high
pressure water sprays.
Wheels, tyres & brake assemblies
need to be covered to keep free of
cleaning agents.
Use only the cleaning agents &
chemicals recommended by the

Surface Cleaning
Most aircraft will
before
starting
inspections.

be cleaned
the
large

To keep clean the aircraft always.

Dirt, trapped moisture, solvents
can cover up cracked or damaged
components.

Structural Assembly Techniques

The A/C integrity depends on the
way
the
parts
are
attached
together.
The most common attachment is
by the use of rivets or fasteners.
Nuts and bolts, adhesive bonding
techniques are also used.

Riveting
Rivets
Special
Solid
Blind
Special
Shank
Fasteners
Fasteners
Fasteners

Solid Shank Rivets

The vast majority of structure is
held together with solid rivets.

Solid Shank Rivet Head

Shapes
Flat Head
Round Head
Universal Head
Flush Rivets

Flat Head (AN442)

This is used in internal locations
where it can be driven more easily
than either a round or universal
head rivet.

Flat Head Rivet

Round Head (AN430)

This is used on internal structure
where the thicker head is more
suitable for automatic riveting
equipment.

Round Head Rivet

Universal Head (AN470 or

MS20470)
Most popular and may be used to
replace any protruding-head rivet.
It is streamlined on top but thick
enough
to
provide
strength
without protruding too much into
the airflow.

Universal Head Rivets

Flush Rivets (AN426 or

MS20426)
Used in where a smooth skin is
important.
Rivets
with
a
different
countersink angle, such as 90,
100 and 120 degrees can be
found.

Flush Rivets

Rivet Head Types

Types of Alloy used for Solid Shank Rivets

The marks are used to identify the

rivet alloy.
Head markings are necessary to
identify the type of rivets removed
from an aircraft.
Marks are made on rivet heads.

Solid Rivet Identification

'A' Rivets
Used for non-structural
applications.
Made from pure Al.

Solid Rivet Identification

Type AD Rivet
A very popular type of a rivet.
Has Cu and Mg added to the Al
base metal.
Heat treated during manufacture
to make it strong, whilst still being
soft enough to be formed easily.

Solid Rivet Identification

'D' and 'DD Rivets

Used when more strength than
'AD' rivets is required.
They must be heat treated to
make them softer before they can
be formed.
After forming they may be put
into a refrigerator to maintain the
softening effect.

Solid Rivet Identification

'B' rivet
When riveting Mg alloy sheets,
there must be no Cu in the rivet
alloy.
'B' rivet, manufactured from 5056
alloy.
This contains a large amount of
Mg with a little Mn and Cr but no
Cu.