Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Teaching Assistant:
Adam Knapp
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~makri/444-web-page/chem-444.html
Why Thermodynamics?
The macroscopic description of a system of ~1023 particles
may involve only a few variables!
Simple systems: Macroscopically homogeneous, isotropic,
uncharged, large enough that surface effects can be neglected, not
acted upon by electric, magnetic, or gravitational fields.
Only those few particular combinations of atomic coordinates
that are essentially time-independent are macroscopically
observable. Such quantities are the energy, momentum,
angular momentum, etc.
There are thermodynamic variables in addition to the
standard mechanical variables.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium
In all systems there is a tendency to evolve toward states whose
properties are determined by intrinsic factors and not by previously
applied external influences. Such simple states are, by definition,
time-independent. They are called equilibrium states.
Thermodynamics describes these simple static equilibrium states.
Postulate:
There exist particular states (called equilibrium states) of simple
systems that, macroscopically, are characterized completely by the
internal energy U, the volume V, and the mole numbers N1, , Nr
of the chemical components.
Laws of Thermodynamics
The Course
Discovery of fundamental physical laws and concepts
An exercise in logic (description of intricate phenomena
from first principles)
An explanation of macroscopic concepts from our
everyday experience as they arise from the simple
quantum mechanics of atoms and molecules.
The Course
Prerequisites
Resources
Course Planner
o
o
o
o
o
Organized in units.
Material covered in lectures. What to focus on or review.
What to study from the book.
Homework assignments.
Questions for further thinking.
http://www.scs.uiuc.edu/~makri/444-web-page/chem-444.html/444-course-planner.html
Grading Policy
Homework
30%
(September 29th)
(November 3rd)
Final Exam
(December 14th)
40%
Math Review
Partial derivatives
Ordinary integrals
Taylor series
Differential forms
df
x
dx
x
y
f ( x0 x, y0 ) f ( x0 , y0 )
f
y
y
x
f ( x0 x, y0 y ) f ( x0 x, y0 )
f
f
x
y
y x
f ( x0 , y0 )
f (x0, y0)
y
(x0, y0+y)
(x0, y0)
(x0+x, y0+y)
(x0+x, y0)
x
df f ( x0 x, y0 y ) f ( x0 , y0 )
f
f
x y
x y
y x
If z z ( x, y ), then
x y z
y z x
z x
1
y
PROPERTIES OF GASES
Units of temperature
1 Pa 1 N m 2
1 atm 1.01325 105 Pa
1 bar = 105 Pa
1
1 torr =
atm
760
T=300K
compressibility
factor
Ideal gas: z = 1
z < 1:
z > 1:
a
P 2 V b RT
V
The set of parameters Pc, Vc, Tc for which the number of solutions changes
from one to three, is called the critical point. The van der Waals equation has
an inflection point at Tc.
Isotherms
(P vs. V at constant T)
P
0
T Tc :
0 : unstable region
V T
(V b) 2 V 3
V T
2a (V b) 2
0 for V
RT
3
(3 or 1 real roots)
2 P
2 RT
6a
2
3
4
V T (V b) V
3a (V b)3
0 for V
RT
4
Vc 3b
8a
27 Rb
a
Pc
27b 2
Tc
PR
PR
3
1
8
V
TR
R
VR2
3
3
P
V
T
, VR , TR
"reduced" variables
Pc
Vc
Tc
Virial Coefficients
Z
PV
B
B
1 2V 3V2 L
RT
V
V
Virial expansion
u ( r ) / k BT
1 r 2 dr
, r
0, r
2
B2V (T ) N A 3
3
2
B2V (T ) N A 3 1 ( 3 1) e / kBT 1
3
B2V (T ) ;
2
c6
NA 3
3
3
k
T
(high T )
B2V (T ) ; b
a
RT
2
a N A2 3 3 1
3
Comparing to the result of the hard sphere model with r-6 attraction,
2
b N A 3 ,
3
2
c
a N A2 63
3
; molecular diameter
b ; molecular volume (repulsive interaction)
a
related to strength/range of attractive interaction
c12 c6
6
12
r
r
u ( r ) 4
ri : electronic coordinates
R i : nuclear coordinates
H el ri , R i n ri ; R i En R i n ri ; R i
Adiabatic or electronic or
Born-Oppenheimer states
How many ways are there of assigning energy eigenvalues to the members
of the ensemble? In other words, how many ways are there to place a1
systems in a state with energy E1, a2 systems in a state with energy E2, etc.?
Recall binomial distribution:
The number of ways A distinguishable objects can be divided into 2 groups
containing a1 and a2 =A -a1 objects is
A !
W (a1 , a2 )
a1 !a2 !
Multinomial distribution:
The number of ways A distinguishable objects can be divided into groups
containing a1, a2, objects is
k !
A !
W a1 , a2 ,K
k
a1 !a2 !K
ak !
k
3.5
3
25
A 3
A 6
20
2.5
15
W
2
1.5
10
1
5
0.5
0
a1
a1
1.4 1014
1000
A 12
14
1.2 10
A 50
800
1 1014
600
W
8 1013
6 10
400
13
4 1013
200
2 10
0 1 2
3 4
5 6 7
a1
8 9 10 11 12
13
14
24
a1
34
44
Stirlings Approximation
This is an approximation for the logarithm of the factorial of large numbers.
The results is easily derived by approximating the sum by an integral.
ln N ! N ln N N
Lagranges Method of
Undetermined Multipliers
Extremize the function f ( x1 ,K , xn ) subject to the constraint g ( x1 ,K , xn ) 0.
f
The function has an extremum if f
x j 0.
x
j 1
j
n
g
The constraint condition is satisfied at all points, so g
x j 0.
x
j 1
j
n
This relation connects the variations of the variables, so only n-1 of them are
independent. We introduce a parameter and combine the two relations into
f
g
x j 0.
x j
j 1 x j
Lets pick variable xas the dependent one. We choose such that
f
g
0
x
x
This allows us to rewrite the previous equation in the form
f
g
x j 0.
x j
j x j
Because all the variables in this equation are independent, we can vary them
arbitrarily, so we conclude
f
g
0 for all j
x j
x j
Combined with the equation specifying , we have
f
g
0 for all j
x j
x j
Notice that Lagranges method doesnt tell us how to determine .
A ,
ln
W
a
E
k
k k 0,
a j
k
k
a E
j
j 1, 2,K
Ej
1/ k BT
At a temperature T the probability that a system is in a state with quantum
mechanical energy Ej is
Pj
Q e
j
Ej
Ej
Q
j j
e
j
Ej
E j Q 1E U ( N ,V , T )
k
T
B
N ,V
N ,V
2 2 ln Q
1 U
U
cv
kB
constant-volume heat capacity
2
2
k BT N ,V
T N ,V
N ,V
Separable Systems
The partition function for a system of two types of noninteracting
particles, described by the Hamiltonian
H H (1) H (2)
with energy eigenvalues
(2)
E jk (1)
j k
is
Q Q (1)Q (2)
trans
3
2
2 mk BT
(V , T )
V
2
h
trans
3
(V , T ) RT
2
3
R
2
vib
e h /2
e vib / 2T
h
, vib
"vibrational temperature"
vib / T
h
1 e
1 e
kB
U vib N h
As T , cvvib R
vib
e vib / T
1 e
vib / T
h2 J ( J 1)
8 2 Ik BT
T
h2
, rot 2
"rotational temperature"
2
h
rot
8 Ik B
Symmetry factors:
If there are identical atoms in a molecule some rotational operations result in
identical states. We introduce the symmetry factor to correct this
overcounting.
q
rot
rot
Polyatomic Molecules
n atoms, 3n degrees of freedom.
Nonlinear molecules:
3
Translational degrees of freedom
3
Rotational degrees of freedom
3n-6 Vibrational degrees of freedom
Linear molecules:
3
Translational degrees of freedom
2
Rotational degrees of freedom
3n-5 Vibrational degrees of freedom
vib
q vib
j ,
j 1
3n 5 (linear)
3n 6 (nonlinear)
Symmetry factor:
The number of different ways the molecule can be rotated
into an indistinguishable configuration.
Asymmetric molecules: 1 (e.g. COS)
Symmetric molecules: 2 (e.g. CO 2 , HC CH)
I A I B IC
I A I B IC
Spherical top: q
rot
8 Ik BT
h2
3
2
8 I A k BT 8 I C k BT
h2
h2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
8 I A k BT 8 I B k B T 8 I C k BT
2
h2
h2
h
1
2
p
H i +V (r1 ,r2 ,K ) (Cartesian atomic coordinates)
i 1 2 mi
3n
Expand the potential in a Taylor series about the minimum through quadratic terms:
1 3n 3n
1
V ; xi K ij x j xT K x ( xi =ri - ri min Cartesian displacement coordinates)
2 i 1 j 1
2
2V
where K ij
xi x j
We will show in a simple way how one can obtain an independent mode form by doing a
coordinate transformation. In practice, the normal mode transformation proceeds after the
Hamiltonian in expressed in internal coordinates.
qi mi xi
3n
pi2 1 2
1 2 1 3n 3n
Then
= pi and H pi qi K%
ij qj
2m 2
2 i 1 j 1
i 1 2
2
2
1
1
2
2
K%
m
m
ij
i
j
qi qj
xi x j
% U , or
UT K
%U U
K
1 2 1 3n 2 2
Now H Pi i Qi
2 i 1
i 1 2
1
p
1
Translation in one dimension: H
(one quadratic term) k B
2 m
2
2
1
d
1
1
p
1
Vibration: H
m 2 x 2 (two quadratic terms) k B
2 m 2
Diatomic molecule: 3 kB
Linear triatomic molecule: 6 kB
Nonlinear triatomic molecule: 6 kB
Mechanical Work
Expansion of a gas
removing pins
m
piston held
down by pins
h
Pf , V f
P i , Vi
w Pext V
Mechanical work:
Vf
w Pext (V )dV
Vi
Reversible Processes
A process is called reversible if Psystem= Pext at all times. The work expended to
compress a gas along a reversible path can be completely recovered upon reversing
the path.
When the process is reversible the path can be reversed, so expansion and
compression correspond to the same amount of work.
To be reversible, a process must be infinitely slow.
A process is called reversible if Psystem= Pext at all times.
Vf
w P (V )dV
Vi
P
Pi
w nRT ln
Pf
Vi
Vf
Vf
Vi
Work and heat are not state functions and do not correspond to exact differentials.
Of the three thermodynamic variables, only two are independent. It is convenient to
choose V and T as the independent variables for U.
U q w
PdV
dU dq
reversible
constant-pressure
A
PA
B reversible
isothermal
C
PC
VA
VC
VC
VA
V
nRTA ln C
VA
TB TA
wAC
wAB PA VB VA
U AC 0 q AC nRTA ln
TC
qBC U BC cV dT
TB
TB
U AB cV dT
TA
TB
q AB U AB wAB cV dT PA VB VA
TA
wBC 0
VC
VA
Free Expansion
P
No work, no heat!
U 0
U
dV
V T
dU cV dT
U U (T ) T 0
U
is small.
V T
Adiabatic Processes
A process is called adiabatic if no heat is transferred to or out of the system.
U wad , dU dwad
P
P
PA
dU cV dT PdV
reversible
constant-pressure
A
PC
VA
B reversible isothermal
nRT
dV (ideal gas)
V
VC
reversible adiabatic
cV 23 nR independent of T
3
2
TD
VA
VD
TA
Adiabatic cooling!
Enthalpy
H U PV
P
Ideal gas:
H
cP =
T P
cP cV nR
5
5
cP nR,
2
3
PV const.
V2
P1
P2
V1
Entropy
A statement of the second law:
P
No process is possible whose sole effect is the absorption of heat from a reservoir and
the conversion of this heat into work.
Postulate:
There exists a state function S called the entropy. This is such that, for a reversible
process,
dq
dS
T
dS 0
.
1/T is the integrating factor for dq
S has units of R (or kB). For a reversible process,
dU TdS PdV
Isolated system is a system that cannot exchange any matter or energy with the
environment.
PThe second law: The entropy of an isolated system never decreases.
A spontaneous process that starts from a given initial condition always leads to the
same final state. This final state is the equilibrium state.
nRT
dV
V
dT
dV
nR
T
V
dS cV
T
T0
V0
S cV (T ) d ln T nR d ln V f (T ) f (T0 ) nR ln
S (T ,V )
V
V0
nRT
dP
P
dT
dP
nR
T
P
T0
P0
S cP (T ) d ln T nR d ln P g (T ) g (T0 ) nR ln
S (T , P )
P
P0
dU dU A dU B 0 (isolated system)
dS dS A dS B
1
dU A dU B
1
dU A
TA
TB
TA TB
According to Clausius principle, if TA > TB then heat will flow from A to B, i.e.,
dS 0
A spontaneous process evolves in the direction of increasing entropy.
dq
Reversible process: dS
.
T
dq
Spontaneous (irreversible) process: dS
.
T
dq
In general, dS
.
T
S1
S3
S2
qB C 0 (heat absorption)
wA B , C A q B C 0
C
B
V
So in this cycle there is heat absorbed that is converted into work. This is in
contradiction with the second law. We arrived at this contradiction by assuming
there are two reversible adiabatic processes starting from point A.
D
U ABCDA 0 q AB qCD w 0
C
V
Entropy changes:
S AB
T2
1 (unless T2 0)
T1
B
A
w
q
1 CD
q AB
q AB
dq
q
q
AB , SCD CD S AB
T
T1
T2
qCD
T
2
q AB
T1
One can never utilize all the thermal energy given to the
engine by converting it into mechanical work.
2.
3.
P
C
4.
5.
6.
D
B
E
A
V
TC
qh cV dT .
TB
A
V
from TD to TA : qc cV dT cV (TD TA ).
TD
q
V
T T
1 c 1 D A 1 B
qh
TC TB
VA
VB / VA : compression ratio
See http://www.ac.wwu.edu/~vawter/PhysicsNet/Topics/ThermLaw2/Entropy/GasCycleEngines.html
copied in 444-web-page/Ideal Heat Engine Gas Cycles.htm
But dU sys 0 dq
sys PdV
Ssys
dq
sys
V2
V1
V2 dV
PdV
V2
nR
nR ln 0
V1 V
T
V1
The heat entering the system was absorbed from the environment. Then
dq
Senv Ssys , S univ 0.
env dq sys
dq
Senv 0, S univ 0.
env 0
The entropy of the system increased, but the entropy of the environment
remained unchanged.
Maximum disorder:
a1 1, a2 a3 L 0 Sensemble 0
Ssys
1
Sensemble
A
Ssys
1
Sensemble
A
A !
Use W
and apply Stirling's approximation.
a
!
j
j
ln W lnA ! ln a j ! A lnA A a j ln a j a j
j
Sensemble k BA lnA k B a j ln a j
j
Use populations
Sensemble
pj
aj
A
k BA lnA k B A p j lnA p j
j
k BA lnA k BA
lnA k BA
p
j
Ssys k B p j ln p j
j
ln p j
pn 1, pi n 0 then
U
k B ln Q
T
ln Q
it follows that
T N ,V
From U k BT 2
ln Q
k B ln Q
T N ,V
S k BT
T N ,V
S k BT
3N
ln Qtrans
T N ,V 2 T
2 mk T 2 V
5
B
S nR nR ln
2
2
h N A
3
pj
Ej
dU p j dE j E j dp j
j
E j
dU p j
dV E j dp j PdV dq
j
j
V N
Q e
j
Ej
Q
E j E j
N ,
j
E j
ln Q
P p j
k BT V
N ,
j
E dp
dq
j
j
j
1 2 m
N ! h 2
3N
2
VN
N
T
P k BT nR
V
V
N
ln Q
V N , V
We see that the ideal gas law is obtained by using relations obtained for a gas of non-interacting
particles.
because
dp
dS k B ln p j dp j dp j k B ln p j dp j
j
dq
dS k B E j ln Q dp j k B E j dp j k B dq
T
j
j
kB
1
T
The third law is about the impossibility of attaining the absolute zero of
temperature in a thermodynamic system.
V
T
dU TdS PdV
T2
H
S
T
P
dH TdS VdP
T2
The entropy change associated with any isothermal reversible process of a condensed
system approaches zero as the temperature approaches zero.
dS
cV
dT at constant V
T
Crystals: cV : T 3 as T 0 dS : T 2 dT as T 0
S k B p j ln p j
j
The entropy of a system that has a non-degenerate ground state vanishes at the absolute
zero.
Phase I
T0
H
T0
cPI (T )dT
T0
cPII (T ) dT
(constant P)
Phase II
Legendre Transforms
It is often desirable to express a thermodynamic function in terms of different
independent variables. Most often this new desirable variable is the first
derivative of a fundamental function with respect to one of its undesirable
independent variables; for example,
U U ( S ,V )
U
dU TdS PdV , P
V S
We are seeking a general tool for finding a new function that contains the
same information as the original fundamental thermodynamic function, but
where the undesirable variable has been eliminated in favor of the
desirable one. In the previous example,
We seek a new function H H ( S , P) that is equivalent
to U but which depends on the variable P rather than V .
x
A tangent line can be specified by its slope f (new independent variable)
and intercept .
f
Notice f
f x f ( x) Legendre tranform of f
x
We solve f ( x) for x and substitute in the above relation to obtain
( x). This is possible if f is single-valued, i.e., f 0 at all x.
U U ( S ,V )
dU TdS PdV
T
S V
P
V S
H H ( S , P ) U ( P )V
dH TdS VdP
A A(T ,V ) U TS
dA SdT PdV
A
T
S P
G G (T , P ) A ( P )V
H TS U TS PV
dG SdT VdP
Maxwells Relations
f ( x1 , x2 )
y2
y1
1 x2
2
df y1dx1 y2 dx2
f
y1
x
1 x
f
y2
x1
x1
Examples
dU TdS PdV
U
S V
U
P
T P
V S S
dA SdT PdV
A
A
,
T V
V
dH TdS VdP
dG SdT VdP
P S
P T
T V
V
dS
dV
T
S
dV
V T
At constant T , dS
dV
V
P
dV along an isothermal process
T V
P
nR
V2
nR
ln
2
1
T V V
V1
V2
S 2 S1
V1
Ideal gas:
U
S
V T
V
P
P T
U
P
dV
dV
V T
T V
P
dV along an isothermal process
T V
At constant T , dU
V2
U 2 U1 P T
V1
Pfaffian Forms
Extensive variable
Intensive variable
Work
V (gas volume)
-P
-P dV
L (wire length)
F (force)
F dL
A (film area)
S (surface tension)
H (magnetic field)
dU TdS Yi dX i
Pfaffian form
X i : extensive variable
Yi : intensive variable
-S dA
H dM
PHASE EQUILIBRIUM
Phase Diagrams
Water
Carbon Dioxide
(Typical Case)
Chemical Potential
Intensive variable such that
dw
"chemical work"
chem j dn j
j
(The sum is over all components of a system and nj are the mole numbers.)
dU TdS PdV j dn j
j
dH TdS VdP j dn j
j
dA SdT PdV j dn j
j
U
H
n
i
S ,V ,n j i
i
A
G
n
i T ,V , n j i
S , P , n j i
T , P , n j i
dG SdT VdP j dn j
j
Pure substance:
G ( P, T , n) n g ( P , T ) g ( P, T )
The chemical potential of a pure substance is the molar Gibbs free energy.
Consequence:
The thermodynamic potentials attain minimum values with respect to their
internal extensive variables at equilibrium, subject to the given external
constraints.
I. Thermal Equilibrium
Constraints:
U A U A ( S A ,V A ) and S S A (U A ,V A ) S B (U B ,V B )
Since the volumes cannot change,
S A
S A
A
dS
dU
A
B
U
A
S A
S A
A
B dU
U V A U V B
S
1
and therefore
U V T
dU
VB
1
1
A
dU
A
T B
T
dS
V V A V B const., U U A U B const.
"Internal variables": U A , V A
S A
S A
A
dS
dU
A
A
V
A
S A
dV
B
U
A
S A
S A
A
dU
A
B
U V A U
V B
B S A
dU
B
V
B
dV B
UB
S A
A
dV
V
A
U B
U
1 S
P
S
From dU TdS PdV we find
and therefore
U
T
V
T
U
S A
A
V
P A P B
1
1
A
dS A B dU A B dV A .
T
T
T
T
At equilibrium dS 0 for any dU A , dV A . It follows that
T A T B , P A PB
Rigid, diathermal
wall permeable to substance 1
A
A
B
U
A
A
A
A
V ,n1
1 V ,U
dU TdS PdV j dn j
j
S B
dU
B
n
B B
1
V , n1
S
1
n
T
1 U ,V
1A 1B
1
1
A
dS A B dU A B dn1A
T
T
T
T
At equilibrium
T A T B , 1A 1B
dn1B
V B ,U B
Phase II
T
d I BI AI S I dT V I dP
d II BII AII S II dT V II dP
II
dP S
II
S dT
I
dP H
dT T V
dP S III
dT V III
Clapeyron equation
Liquid-to-vapor transition
S l g 0, V l g 0
dP
0
dT
dP
0
dT
dP
0. This is the case with water.
dT
RT
(ideal gas), so
P
1 dP H l g
P dT
RT 2
Clausius-Clapeyron approximation
n P ,T
L
T ,V
ln Q
ln Q
A U TS k BT
T k BT
N ,V
A k BT ln Q
ln Q
ln Q
RT
N
n T ,V
k BT
T ,V
N ,V
k B ln Q
RT ln
V k BT
N
P
q k BT
q
RT ln k BT RT ln P
V P
V
q k BT
P
RT ln
RT ln , or
0
V P
P0
P 0 standard pressure (105 Pa)
P
0 RT ln
P0
SOLUTIONS
n2
The partial molar free energy is the chemical potential of the substance, i.e., an
intensive variable. However, the partial molar free energies generally depend on
the mole fraction n1 /( n1 n2 ) . This is so because the partial derivatives
G
n
i
T , P ,n
j i
The partial molar volumes depend on the mole fraction of the particular
substance in the solution and are not additive when substances are mixed! This
statement applies generally to any extensive variable. Of course extensive
variables still scale linearly with the total number of moles, provided the mole
fraction of each substance remains fixed.
Euler Relations
The internal energy U is a function of extensive variables, U U ( S ,V , n1 , n2 ,K ).
Based on the previous remarks, U is a homogeneous first order property, i.e.,
U ( S , V , n1 , n2 ,K ) U ( S ,V , n1 , n2 ,K )
Differentiating with respect to
U ( S , V , n1 , n2 ,K )
U ( S , V , n1 , n2 ,K ) ( S ) U ( S , V , n1 , n2 ,K ) (V )
( S )
(V )
U ( S , V , n1 , n2 ,K ) ( n1 )
L
( n1 )
U ( S ,V , n1 , n2 ,K )
U TS PV i ni
i
H TS i ni
i
A U TS
A PV i ni
i
G A PV
G i ni
i
This result can also be obtained from the Euler relation for dU:
dU TdS SdT PdV VdP j dn j n j d j
j
we find
SdT VdP n j d j 0
j
n1g , n2g
n1l , n2l
n
g
g
l
1 P ,T ,n2 ,n1 ,n2
dn1g
P ,T , n1l , n2l , n2g
G
G
l
dn2
l
g
n
l
g
g
2 P ,T , n1 , n , n
2
1
2
Since dn1l dn1g 0, dn2l dn2g 0, and
dn2g
P ,T , n1l , n2l , n1g
G
l
etc.
1,
l
n1 P ,T ,nl ,n g ,n g
2
1l 1g , 2l 2g
Assuming the vapor behaves as an ideal gas, the chemical potential of substance
j in the solution is
(T ) RT ln
l
j
g
j
0
j
Pj
P0
lj* gj * 0j (T ) RT ln
Pj*
P0
RT ln
l
j
l*
j
Pj
Pj*
nj
ni
j
j RT ln x j
Here sol
j is the chemical potential of (liquid) component j in the solution
and *j is the chemical potential of the pure substance.
*
1
P
P
P1
P2*
x1
P2
0
(linear in x1 )
(Dalton's law)
x1 P1*
P P2* P1*
P1*
P2*
*
*
1
*
*
*
*
x1 P1 x2 P2 P1 P2 P P1 P2
P
liquid-vapor coexistence
x1 depends linearly on P.
P vs. x1
y1 depends nonlinearly
(hyperbolically) on P (and on x1 )!
P1*
P vs. y1
P2*
0
x1 or y1
How much liquid vs. vapor is there at a pressure PC, given that the overall mole
B
fraction of component 1 is x1 ?
Mole fractions in liquid and vapor phases:
n1l
n1l
x l
l,
l
n1 n2 n
n1g
n1g
y g
g
g
n1 n2 n
n1l n1g
x l
n ng
E
1
B
1
n x x
l
B
1
E
1
F
1
n y
g
F
1
B
1
"lever rule"
P vs. x1
*
2
P1*
E
C
F
D
P vs. y1
0
x1 or y1
Non-Ideal Solutions
Pj x j Pj*
P1*
P
P1
P2*
P1*
P
P1
P2*
P2
P2
0
x1
attractive interactions between
different molecules dominate
x1
repulsive interactions between
different molecules dominate
Pj : x j Pj* as x j 1 only
Temperature-Composition Diagrams
P
Boiling point
vapor
T1*
Tb vs. y1
T2*
Tb vs. x1
liquid
0
Azeotropes
P
Boiling point
vapor
T1*
Tb vs. y1
T2*
Tb vs. x1
liquid
0
x1
Activity
For any solution (ideal or not),
RT ln
l
j
Pj
*
j
l*
j
Pj
Pj*
xj
Pj
*
j
lj lj* RT ln a j
Solid-Liquid Solutions
A: water
B: water + sugar
Solutions separated by membrane
permeable to water only.
Osmotic Pressure
wA (T , P ) w* (T , P )
B
wB (T , P ) w* (T , P ) RT ln aw
w*
Pw
*
aw * . But
V
w , so
Pw
P T
w* (T , P ) w* (T , P)
Vw ( P)dP Vw
so Vw RT ln aw 0
Vw ( P)dP
a w xw 1 xs
ln aw ln(1 xs ) xs
Vw RTxs
xs
ns
nw
Vw RTns
It follows that the osmotic pressure of dilute solutions is given by the relation
cRT
Additional Definitions
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
1 V
V T P
V P T
Root-Mean-Square Velocity
1
2
urms
3k BT
m
Velocity Distribution
Recall that the probability of having translational energy
1
E m u x2 u y2 u z2
2
is given by the Boltzmann factor
P( E ) : e
m u x2 u 2y u z2 / 2 k BT
2
x
u x2 px (u x )
k BT
m
2
y
2
z
1
2
f (u )du u du sin d
2
3
2
m
mu 2 / 2 k BT
d
e
2 k BT
3
2
m
2 mu 2 / 2 k BT
f (u ) 4
ue
2 k BT
8k BT
m
8k BT
m
2 k BT
REACTION RATES
Chemical Reactions
A A BB L CC D D L
1 d [A]
1 d [B] 1 d [C] 1 d [D]
L k [A] [B] L
A dt
B dt
C dt
D dt
Exponents: reaction order
d [A]
k[A] [A] [A]0 e kt
dt
d [A]
1
1
2
Second order reactions:
k[A]
kt
dt
[A] [A]0
First order reactions:
k k [A]eq k [A]0
k k [A]eq k [A]0
d [A]
k [A] k [A]0 [A] k k [A] k k [A]eq
dt
d [A]
k k [A] [A]eq
dt
d
[A] [A]eq k k [A] [A]eq
dt
[A] [A]eq [A]0 [A]eq e ( k k ) t
reactants
products
reaction coordinate
Eb
TST
Numerator =
p
( x xb ) ( p )
m
dp e H ( x , p )
dx dp e H ( x , p )
dp e
dx
H ( xb , p )
p
e Eb
p 2 /2 m Eb p
dp e
e
0
m
m
cl
r
Q ;
dx dp e
p2 1
m 02 ( x x0 )2
2 m 2
k TST
2
0
0 Eb
e
2
k TST
k BT Q Eb
e
h Qr
ln k
activated crossing
tunneling regime
1/T
Tunneling
Preliminaries
P(E)
classical
quantum
mechanical
Vb
0
Vb
very small
splittings
Isolated symmetric
double well: constant
amplitude tunneling
oscillations
Asymmetry quenches
tunneling
0.5
-0.5
-1
8
t
12
16
Generally, Pc (T ) e
n
Pmc (En )
microcanonical
thermally averaged
Tunneling dominates at
low temperatures, where
the classical rate goes to
zero.
log k
kcl(T ) Ae
kqm
kcl
1/T
Early history
1927 Hund suggested that quantum mechanical tunneling may
play an important role in some chemical reactions.
1928 Fowler and Nordheim observed velocities of electrons
emitted by metals that were too small.
e-
V(r)
r
R. H. Fowler and L. Nordheim, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 119, 173
(1928)
n p+
*
b
R
conduction
valence
Exciton tunneling in
molecular aggregates
Exciton tunneling in
symmetric molecular
aggregates leads to a type
of band structure and
delocalized states.
Fe3+ + e-
R. A. Marcus,
1992 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
Tunneling of atoms
scattering
bimolecular reactions
asymmetric
isomerizations
predissociation
unimolecular decay
symmetric
isomerizations
enhanceme
nt
of
tunneling
Tunneling effects in
bimolecular reactions
A+BC AB+C
H+H2 H2 +H
D+H2 HD+H
RBC
RAB
Tunneling effects in
molecular spectroscopy
Tunneling leads to splitting of
rovibrational levels in symmetric
isomerizations. The splitting is
observed spectroscopically in the
microwave region.
Inversion of NH3
1.3cm1
C. E. Cleeton and N. H.
Williams, Phys. Rev. 45, 234
(1934).
H tunneling in
hydrogen-bonded
molecules
3,7-dichlorotropolone
Tunneling in enzymes
Tunneling plays a significant role in hydrogen transfer
at enzyme active sites.
A. Kohen, R. Cannio, S. Bartolucci and J.P. Klinman (1999), Nature 399, 496-499.
log
V / kBT
b
kcl(T ) Ae
activated dynamics
deep
tunneling
1
0
1
0
Intermediate T
Low T
1.E-04
D, cm /s
1.E-06
1.E-08
1.E-10
1.E-12
1.E-14
1
conventi
onal
TST
quant
um5
/T, K
Inverse isotope
effect!
Imaging surfaces
Cr impurities on a Fe (001)
surface
Spelling atom in
Japanese. Fe on Cu
U0 - U
U0 U0 + U
Since this rearrangement of the energy results in a larger entropy, it should occur
spontaneously if the two systems are connected through a diathermal wall. This way
the system will break up into two systems of different thermodynamic properties.
This process is a phase transition.
The instability leading to phase separation is a consequence of the assumed convex
shape of S over a range of U. In stable thermodynamic systems the entropy function
is a concave function, i.e., d 2 S < 0 with respect to the extensive variables U and V.
2
2
T
T
0
P
0 T 0
2
V T V T
G or U
S or V
G or U
Critical phenomena are
accompanied by huge density
fluctuations, which give rise to
the observed critical
opalescence.
S or V
n0
N0
N
A snapshot of 4He at 1.2 K. Each 4He atoms is represented in the simulation through
20 pair-propagator beads. The blue beads correspond to linked necklaces.
The End