Chapter 27

Early Quantum Theory and

Models of the Atom

1
 Wave-particle duality
• Young’s double slit experiment with
light yielded interference patterns
that were evidence of the wave
nature of light
• However if the same experiment is
repeated with particles (electrons)
an interference pattern forms also.
• Major concept of this unit is that
waves can exhibit particle-like
characteristics (photons) and
particles can exhibit wave-like
characteristics

2
 27.1 Discovery and Properties of the
Electron
In the late 19th century, discharge tubes were
made that emitted “cathode rays.”

3
 Thomson’s Cathode Ray Tube experiment
J.J. Thomson’s experiment used crossed E, B
fields to deflect the “cathode rays”
must be negatively charged particles

4
The charge to mass ratio was calculated used
the crossed fields and UCM measurements

mv 2
qvB  qE  qvB q  e
r

The result is
Cathode rays were later called electrons
5
 Millikan oil drop experiment
Robert Millikan devised an experiment to
measure the charge on the electron by
measuring the electric field needed to suspend
an oil droplet of known mass between parallel
plates.

6
The mass and charge of each droplet were
measured;
the charge was always an integral multiple of a
smallest charge, e.

The currently accepted value of e is:

Knowing e allows the electron mass to be

calculated:

7
 27.2 Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis;
Blackbody Radiation
All objects emit radiation whose total intensity is
proportional to the fourth power of their
temperature. This is called thermal radiation; a
blackbody is one that emits thermal radiation
only.

The spectrum of blackbody radiation has been

measured; it is found that the frequency of peak
intensity increases linearly with temperature.

8
This figure shows
blackbody radiation
curves for three
different temperatures.
Planck observed direct
relationship between
amount of energy and
the frequency of the
radiation emitted

9
 27.2 Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis;
Blackbody Radiation
This spectrum could not be reproduced using
19th-century physics.
A solution was proposed by Max Planck in 1900:
The energy of atomic oscillations within atoms
cannot have an arbitrary value; it is related to the
frequency:

The constant h is now called Planck’s

constant.
10
 27.2 Planck’s Quantum Hypothesis;
Blackbody Radiation
Planck found the value of his constant by fitting
blackbody curves:

Planck’s proposal was that the energy of an

oscillation had to be an integral multiple of
hf. This is called the quantization of energy.

E  n(hf ) n  1, 2,3...
11
Quantum:  The smallest amount of
something that can exist independently.

Continuous: stream of sugar

Quantum: individual grains
Continuous: music played on a violin or guitar
Quantum: notes on a flute or piano
Continuous: box up the ramp
Quantum: box up the stairs

12
 27.3 Photon Theory of Light and the
Photoelectric Effect

Einstein suggested that, given the success of

Planck’s theory, light must be emitted in small
energy packets:

These tiny packets, or particles, are called

photons.

photons 13
 Classical vs Quantum Physics
• Newtonian classical physics states that particles
have a total energy E comprised of KE + PE and
momentum p = mv.
• Einstein’s interpretation of the photoelectric
effect experiment was that electromagnetic
waves are composed of particle-like “photons”
that have energy and momentum
that we will define later.
• Wave-particle duality is not either wave or
particle but each behavior being exhibited in
different circumstances.
14
 Photoelectric Effect

• If light strikes a metal,

electrons are emitted.
• The effect does not
occur if the frequency
of the light is too low;
• the kinetic energy of
the electrons increases
with frequency.

15
 Wave nature?

If light is a wave, theory predicts:

1. Number of electrons and their energy should
increase with intensity
2. Frequency would not matter – any color light
would cause current flow.

16
 Particle nature

If light is particles, theory predicts:

• Increasing intensity increases number of
electrons but not energy
• Above a minimum energy required to break
atomic bond, kinetic energy will increase
linearly with frequency
• There is a cutoff frequency below which no
electrons will be emitted, regardless of
intensity
17
Photoelectric effect
demonstrates the particle
nature of light.
Photons that are
energetic enough, based
on frequency not intensity
of the light, will do work
on electrons in metal
ejecting them towards the
positive electrode.

photoelectric effect
18
The particle theory assumes that an electron
absorbs a single photon.
Plotting the kinetic energy vs. frequency:
This shows clear
agreement with the
photon theory, and
not with wave
theory.

19
Kinetic energy – stopping voltage

Measure KE by reversing polarity

of C electrode, repelling electrons.
When voltage is enough to reduce
current to zero the stopping
voltage has been reached

Work  KE  qV  eV

1 ev = 1.6 x 10-19 J

20
 21
demo
 Energy and Work function
One photon is absorbed by one electron; If the energy of the
photon (hf) exceeds the work function  of the metal then
electron escapes metal as a photoelectron. Remaining
energy is the KE of the electron.
For the most easily removed
electrons KE is maximum

hf  KEmax  
KEmax  hf  

• work function  = hf0 for

the electrons with enough
KE to escape the metal
22
• slope = Planck’s constant
Photoelectric effect – particles not waves
• Work function of metal = 2.5 eV
• Shine dim red light ( = 650 nm) on surface – no electrons
• Increase intensity of light (more energy in each “wave”) – no
electrons are ejected.
• Shorten the , increase the f, and a threshold (f0)is reached
where electrons are ejected.
• At this frequency even very dim light causes current to flow.
• Increasing the intensity of light causes more electrons to
flow but the ALL have the SAME energy – same stopping
voltage can bring current to zero.
• Increasing frequency beyond f0 causes electrons with more
KE to be ejected (higher stopping voltage)
23
 Photoelectric effect examples

• Example
For a certain metal surface illuminated with
decreasing wavelengths electrons are first
ejected when the light has a wavelength of
550 nm. Find the work function of the
metal and determine the stopping voltage
when light of 400 nm wavelength is
incident on the surface.
• Interactive example – photon torpedo 24
 27.4 Energy, Mass, and Momentum of a
Photon
Clearly, a photon must travel at the speed of
light. Looking at the relativistic equation for
momentum, it is clear that this can only happen
if its rest mass is zero.
We already know that the energy is hf; we can
put this in the relativistic energy-momentum
relation and find the momentum:

(27-6)

25
 27.5 Compton Effect

Compton did experiments in which he

scattered X-rays from different materials. He
found that the scattered X-rays had a slightly
longer wavelength than the incident ones, and
that the wavelength depended on the
scattering angle:

(27-7)

26
 27.5 Compton Effect
This is another effect that is correctly predicted
by the photon model and not by the wave
model.

Compton effect
27
 27.6 Photon Interactions; Pair Production
Photons passing through matter can undergo the
following interactions:
1. Photoelectric effect: photon is completely
absorbed, electron is ejected
2. Photon may be totally absorbed by electron,
but not have enough energy to eject it; the
electron moves into an excited state
3. The photon can scatter from an atom and lose
some energy due to frequency change not
speed change
4. The photon can create matter, producing an 28
electron-positron pair.
 Einstein’s famous equation
In pair production, energy, electric charge, and
momentum must all be conserved.
Energy is conserved
• incident photon produces 2
particles each with mass=
9.11 x 10-31 kg
• E = hf  E = m0c2
• Electron – positron at rest
but have energy due to mass
29
27.6 Photon Interactions; Pair Production

• Energy will be conserved through the

mass and kinetic energy of the electron
and positron;
• opposite charges conserve charge;
• the interaction must take place in the
electromagnetic field of a nucleus,
which can contribute momentum.
– total pi = total pf

30
 2007 FRQ
• Electron and positron orbiting around their
stationary center of mass until they annihilate
each other, creating 2 photons of equal energy
moving in opposite directions. The amount of
KE before annihilation is negligible compared to
the energy of the photons created.
a) calculate, in eV, the rest energy of a positron
E = m0c2 = 9.11 x 10-31 kg (3 x 108)2 = 8.2 x 10-14J
E = 8.2 x 10-14J/1.6 x 10-19 J/eV = 512,500 eV =
0.51 MeV
b) determine, in eV, the energy each emitted
photon must have.
photon has no mass – same energy as positron or
electron = 0.51 MeV
31
 2007 FRQ
c) calculate the wavelength of each created
photon.
E = hf = hc/
=6.63 x 10-34Js x 3 x 108 m/s/8.2 x 10-14J
 = 2.43 x 10-12 m
d) calculate the magnitude of the momentum of
each photon
p = h/  = 6.63 x 10-34 Js/2.43 x 10-12 m
p = 2.73 x 10-22 kgm/s
e) determine the total momentum of the two-
photon system
total p initial = 0 total p final = 0
32
 Relativistic vs non-relativistic
• Einstein’s relativistic energy equation applies
for objects with speed v approximately >
0.10c
2
m0 c
E
2
v
1 2
c
We will only be doing non-relativistic problems
with velocities << c so E=m0c2 m0= rest mass
33
 27.8 Wave Nature of Matter
Just as light sometimes behaves as a particle,
matter sometimes behaves like a wave. De
Broglie turned the wave-particle model
around
The wavelength of a particle of matter is:

This is the de Broglie wavelength.

Example 27 – 11 de Broglie
34
27.8 Wave Nature of Matter

• Confirmation of deBroglie’s hypothesis

came from the Davisson-Germer
experiment
• Bombarded nickel with beam of electrons
and saw a characteristic diffraction pattern
similar to Young’s double slit experiment
with light.
• All moving particles have a deBroglie
wavelength but the effects are observable
only for small mass particles
h h
 
p mv 35
 27.10 Rutherford Scattering Experiment
• Rutherford scattered alpha particles – helium
nuclei – from a metal foil and observed the
scattering angle.
• Particles were scattered at angles between 0o
to almost 180o (straight back).
• Results showed that the positively charged
nucleus must be extremely small compared to
the rest of the atom

36
The only way to account for the large angles was
to assume that all the positive charge was
contained within a tiny volume

demo
37
 27.10 Early Models of the Atom

Therefore, Rutherford’s
model of the atom is
mostly empty space:

38
Exciting gases in high voltage
discharge tube

39
Emission spectra from excited gases

Line spectra indicate that photons are being

emitted at distinct, specific wavelengths
(energies)

40
 27.12 The Bohr Atom

Bohr proposed that the possible energy states

for atomic electrons were quantized – only
certain values were possible. Then the spectrum
could be explained as transitions from one level
to another.

41
27.12 The Bohr Atom

The lowest energy level

is called the ground
state; the others are
excited states.

energy levels 42
Electrons in the ground state have the most negative
binding energy
•requires positive work to move it to zero and eject it
from atom

43
 Atomic transitions release energy from atom in the
form of photons
12.5 eV photons do not have
enough energy to excite electrons
up to the n = 4 energy level
Hydrogen atom bombarded with
photons in 10 – 12.5 eV range.
Photons of what energy can be
released? In other words, what
atomic transitions are possible?
• 10.2 eV absorbed photons excite
electrons up to reach n=2
• transition back n = 2 to n =1
emits photons with 10.2 eV
• 12.1 eV absorbed photons cause
electrons to reach n=3
• transition n=3 to n=2 emit
photons with 1.9 eV
• transition n=3 to n=1 emit
photons with 12.1 eV
44
energy (eV) Photons of 10 and 12 eV are incident on
an atom in a gas.
ionized atom
E=0 a) draw atomic transitions

 2 eV 10 eV photons do not excite ground

n=3 state electrons to any higher energy
level
12 eV photons excite electrons to n=3
 9 eV energy level
n=2
3 transitions possible
Calculate the frequency of the emitted
photons.
 14 eV
n = 1 ground (for blue transition only)E = 12 eV =
state 1.92 x 10-18 J
f = E/h = 2.9 x 1015 Hz
Photons with energy >14
eV eject electrons, ionizing Are these photons in the visible range?
45
the gas
 Chapter 30
Nuclear Physics and
Radioactivity

46
 30.1 Structure and Properties of the
Nucleus
Nucleus is made of protons and neutrons
Proton has positive charge:

Neutron is electrically neutral:

47
 30.1 Structure and Properties of the
Nucleus
•Neutrons and protons are collectively called
nucleons.
•The different nuclei are referred to as nuclides.
•Number of protons: atomic number, Z
•Number of nucleons: atomic mass number, A
•Neutron number: N = A – Z
•Number of electrons = Z in electrically neutral
atom
• Isotope = same element (Z) different N values48
 30.1 Structure and Properties of the
Nucleus

A and Z are sufficient to specify a nuclide.

Nuclides are symbolized as follows:

X is the chemical symbol for the element; it

contains the same information as Z but in a
more easily recognizable form.

nucleus
49
Mass and Charge Conservation
• Nuclear reactions must “balance” just like
chemical reactions
• Total mass number A of reactants,
products must be equal
• If number of electrons changes total
charge must stay balanced with a change
in the number of protons

50
Radium-226 will alpha-decay to radon-22

51
 Sample Problem
226 222

88
Ra decays into Rn
86 plus

(A) a proton
(B) a neutron
(C) an electron
4
(D) a helium nucleus He2
2
(E) a deuteron 1H

Mass and charge are both conserved in “balancing” these

decay reactions.
52
Beta decay occurs when a nucleus emits
an electron. An example is the decay of
carbon-14:

The nucleus still has 14 nucleons, but it

has one more proton and one fewer
neutron.

Increase in the number of protons balanced by

release of electron 53
30.2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces
The total mass of a stable nucleus is always
less than the sum of the masses of its
separate protons and neutrons.
Where has the mass gone?

54
30.2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces
It has become energy, such as radiation or
kinetic energy, released during the formation
of the nucleus.

This difference between the total mass of the

constituents and the mass of the nucleus is
called the total binding energy of the nucleus.

Binding energy is not something a nucleus has

– it is energy it “lacks” relative to the total
mass of its separate constituents.
55
binding energy
 30.2 Binding Energy of the Nucleus

• The energy needed to separate the nucleus into its

individual protons and neutrons.
• The energy liberated when the nucleus is formed
from the original protons and neutrons.
• The energy equivalent of the apparent loss of mass
of the nucleon components

56
 30.2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces
• The force that binds the nucleons together is
called the strong nuclear force.
• Very strong, but short-range, force.
•The Coulomb force is long-range; this is why
extra neutrons are needed for stability in high-Z
nuclei.

57
 30.2 Binding Energy and Nuclear Forces

More massive nuclei

require extra neutrons
to overcome the
Coulomb repulsion of
the protons in order to
be stable.

58
 31.1 Nuclear Reactions and the
Transmutation of Elements
A nuclear reaction takes place when a nucleus
is struck by another nucleus or particle.
If the original nucleus is transformed into
another, this is called transmutation.
An example:

59
31.1 Nuclear Reactions and the
Transmutation of Elements

Neutrons are very

effective in nuclear
reactions, as they nave
no charge and therefore
are not repelled by the
nucleus.

60
 31.2 Nuclear Fission; Nuclear Reactors

After absorbing a neutron, a

uranium-235 nucleus will split
into two roughly equal parts.
One way to visualize this is to
view the nucleus as a kind of
liquid drop.

fission 61
 Sample Problem
Fission reaction of uranium by a neutron
Predict the A, Z values of the product

1
0 n U
235
92
140
54 Xe  ? 2 n  energy
A
Z
1
0

Total A = 236 in reactants

?A = 236 – 142 = 94
Total Z = 92 in reactants
?Z = 92 – 54 = 38

62