Cerebral cortex

Cerebral Hemispheres
General Appearance
the largest part of the brain
Longitudinal cerebral fissure
midline sagittal fissure that separates the
two hemispheres
It contains
sickle-shaped fold of dura materfalx cerebri
Anterior cerebral arteries
2

Cerebral Hemispheres
General Appearance
Corpus callosum
great commissure that connects the hemispheres

across the midline in the depths of the fissure

Tentorium cerebelli
A horizontal fold of dura mater that separates the

cerebral hemispheres from the cerebellum

Folds or gyri and sulci or fissures on the surfaces

of each hemisphere increases its surface area.

3

Cerebral Hemispheres
General Appearance
Lobes of the hemisphere
Named according to the cranial bones under

which they lie.

The lobes are: frontal, parietal, temporal, and

occipital lobes
Central, parieto-occipital, lateral and calcarine

sulci are boundaries used to classify it.

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Main
Sulci
Central
sulcus
It has great importance because:
Gyrus that lies anterior to it contains motor
cells
initiate movements of the opposite side of
the body

Posterior to it lies the general sensory cortex

receives sensory information from opposite
side of the body
8

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Main Sulci
Central sulcus
It indents the superiomedial border
It runs downward and forward across the lateral aspect
of the hemisphere
and its lower end is separated from the posterior
ramus of the lateral sulcus by a narrow bridge of cortex
It is the only sulcus that indents the superomedial
border and lies between two parallel gyri.

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Main Sulci
Lateral sulcus

a deep cleft found mainly on the inferior and lateral

surfaces
It consists of a short stem that divides into three rami.
The stem arises on the inferior surface
And on reaching the lateral surface, it divides into:
anterior horizontal ramus
anterior ascending ramus
And continues as the posterior ramus

10

Lateral view

11

Medial View

12

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Main Sulci
Insula
An area of cortex that lies at the bottom
of the deep lateral sulcus
cannot be seen from the surface unless
the lips of the sulcus are separated

13

14

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Main Sulci
Parieto-occipital sulcus
begins on the superior medial margin of
the hemisphere
It passes downward and anteriorly on
the medial surface to meet the calcarine
sulcus

15

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Main Sulci
Calcarine sulcus
found on the medial surface of the hemisphere
It commences under the posterior end of the
corpus callosum
Arches upward and backward to reach the
occipital pole, where it stops.
It is joined at an acute angle by the parietooccipital sulcus about halfway along its length.
16

17

General Appearance of Cerebral Hemisphere

Lobes on Superolateral Surface

Frontal lobe
occupies the area anterior to the central
sulcus and superior to the lateral sulcus
Its superolateral surface is divided by
three sulci into four gyri.
Precentral gyrus
Lies between precentral and central sulci
18

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Lobes
onlobe
Superolateral Surface
Frontal
Its superolateral surface is divided into
four gyri:
Superior frontal gyrus
lies superior to the superior frontal sulcus

middle frontal gyrus

lies between the superior and inferior
frontal sulci

19

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Lobes on Superolateral Surface
Frontal lobe
Its superolateral surface is divided into
four gyri:
inferior frontal gyrus
lies inferior to the inferior frontal sulcus
It is invaded by the anterior and
ascending rami of the lateral sulcus.
20

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Lobes on Superolateral Surface
Parietal lobe
occupies the area posterior to the
central sulcus and superior to the lateral
sulcus
It extends posteriorly as far as the
parieto-occipital sulcus

21

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Lobes on Superolateral Surface
Parietal lobe
Its lateral surface is divided by two sulci
into three gyri:
Postcentral gyrus
Lies between centeral and poscenteral
sulci

22

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Lobes on Superolateral Surface
Parietal lobe
Its lateral surface is divided by two sulci
into three gyri:
superior parietal gyrus
Lies superior to the intraparietal sulcus
inferior parietal gyrus
Lies inferior to the intraparietal sulcus
23

General Appearance of Cerebral

Hemisphere
Lobes on Superolateral Surface
Temporal lobe

occupies the area inferior to the lateral sulcus

superior and middle temporal sulci
run parallel to posterior ramus of the lateral
sulcus
divide the lobe into superior, middle, and inferior
temporal gyri

Inferior temporal gyrus continues onto the

inferior surface of the hemisphere

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General Appearance of Cerebral Hemisphere

Lobes on Superolateral Surface

occipital lobe
occupies the small area behind the
parieto-occipital sulcus

25

General Appearance of Cerebral Hemisphere

Lobes on Medial and Inferior Surfaces

Here the lobes are not clearly defined

However, there are many important
areas that should be recognized.

26

 Cingulate gyrus
begins beneath the anterior end of the corpus
callosum
continues above the corpus callosum until it
reaches its posterior end
It is separated from the superior frontal gyrus by
the cingulate sulcus
separated from the corpus callosum by the callosal
sulcus.
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 Paracentral lobule
Surrounds the indentation produced by
the central sulcus
Its anterior part is a continuation of
precentral gyrus
Its posterior part is continuation of
postcentral gyrus.
29

 Precuneus
an area of cortex bounded:
anteriorly by the upturned posterior end of
the cingulate sulcus
posteriorly by the parieto-occipital sulcus.

30

 Cuneus
a triangular area of cortex bounded:
Above by the parieto-occipital sulcus
Inferiorly by the calcarine sulcus
Posteriorly by the superior medial margin.

31

 Collateral sulcus
Situated on the inferior surface
Runs anteriorly below the calcarine sulcus

Lingual gyruslies between collateral and

calcarine sulci
Parahippocampal gyrus
lies anterior to the lingual gyrus
terminates in front as the hooklike uncus

32

 Medial occipitotemporal gyrus

extends from the occipital pole to the temporal
pole
It is bounded medially by collateral and rhinal sulci
and laterally by occipitotemporal sulcus

Occipitotemporal gyrus
lies lateral to occipitotemporal sulcus and is
continuous with the inferior temporal gyrus
33

Internal Structure of Cerebral

Hemispheres
cerebral cortex a layer of gray matter that
covers cerebral hemispheres
interior of the cerebral hemispheres
contains:
lateral ventricles
masses of gray matter
basal nuclei

white matter
34

Sagittal section

35

 Basal Nuclei
a collection of masses of gray matter
situated within each cerebral hemisphere.
They are:
corpus striatum
amygdaloid nucleus
claustrum
36

White Matter
It is composed of myelinated nerve fibers
supported by neuroglia.
nerve fibers may be classified into three
groups according to their connections:
commissural fibers
association fibers
projection fibers.
37

Commissure Fibers
connect corresponding regions of the two
hemispheres.
They are as follows:
corpus callosum
anterior commissure
posterior commissure
Fornix
habenular commissure
38

 Corpus callosum
the largest commissure of the brain
It lies at the bottom of the longitudinal
fissure.
it is divided into rostrum, genu, body,
and splenium.
39

 Corpus callosum
Rostrum
thin part of the anterior end of corpus callosum
It is prolonged posteriorly to be continuous with
the upper end of the lamina terminalis

Genu
curved anterior end of the corpus callosum
bends inferiorly in front of the septum pellucidum
40

Corpus callosum
Body
arches posteriorly and ends as the thickened

posterior portion called the splenium

Its fibers extend laterally as the radiation of

the corpus callosum

This fibers intersect with bundles of

association and projection fibers

41

 Anterior commissure
It is a small bundle of nerve fibers that
crosses the midline in the lamina
terminalis

42

 Posterior commissure
Crosses midline immediately above the
opening of cerebral aqueduct into third
ventricle

43

44

 Fornix
It is composed of myelinated nerve fibers
Constitutes efferent system of the
hippocampus that passes to the mammillary
bodies

45

 Habenular commissure
It is a small bundle of nerve fibers
crosses the midline in the superior part of the

root of the pineal stalk

It is associated with the habenular nuclei
Habenular nuclei receive many afferents from

the amygdaloid nuclei and the hippocampus.

46

Association Fibers
They connect various cortical regions within the
same hemisphere
Can be divided into short and long groups
Short association fibers
lie immediately beneath the cortex and connect
adjacent gyri
these fibers run transversely to the long axis of the
sulci
47

 Long association fibers

are collected into named bundles
uncinate fasciculus
connects the first motor speech area and
the gyri with the cortex in the temporal
lobe.

48

 Long association fibers

are collected into named bundles
cingulum
It is a long, curved fasciculus lying within
the white matter of the cingulate gyrus
connects frontal and parietal lobes with
parahippocampal region
49

 Long association fibers

are collected into named bundles

superior longitudinal fasciculus

It is the largest bundle
connects the anterior part of the frontal
lobe to the occipital and temporal
lobes.
50

 Long association fibers

are collected into named bundles

Inferior longitudinal fasciculus

runs anteriorly from the occipital lobe,
passing lateral to the optic radiation

And distributed to the temporal lobe

51

 Long association fibers

are collected into named bundles
Fronto-occipital fasciculus
connects the frontal lobe to the occipital
and temporal lobes.
It is situated deep within the cerebral
hemisphere
52

Projection Fibers
Afferent and efferent nerve fibers
passing to and from the brainstem to
the entire cerebral cortex

53

 Internal capsule
Compact band formed by projection fibers, at

the upper part of the brainstem

It is flanked by:
medially the caudate nucleus and the thalamus
laterally by the lentiform nucleus

Bents on lentiform nucleus to form anterior

and posterior limbs

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 Corona radiata
Fibers that radiate at each direction into the

cerebral cortex

Optic radiation:
nerve fibers lying within the posterior limb

of the internal capsule

radiate toward the calcarine sulcus
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Medial view of right

hemishere

56

 Septum Pellucidum
It is a thin vertical sheet of nervous tissue

consisting of white and gray matter

It stretches between the fornix and the corpus

callosum.
Anteriorly, it occupies the interval between

the body of the corpus callosum and rostrum.

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Cortical Areas
Frontal Lobe
Precentral area
situated in the precentral gyrus
Includes:
anterior wall of central sulcus
posterior parts of the superior, middle, and
inferior frontal gyri
paracentral lobule
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 Precentral area
The great majority of the corticospinal and corticobulbar
fibers originate from this area.

Areas involved in controlling sensory input only

are:
Postcentral gyrus
Second somatosensory area
Occipital lobe
Temporal lobe
60

Pre-central Area
May be divided into posterior and anterior
regions.
Posterior region
Also known as motor area, primary motor area or
Brodmann area 4
Occupies precentral gyrus extending over the
superior border into the paracentral lobule
61

 Anterior region
is known as the premotor area, secondary
motor area, or Brodmann area 6 and
parts of 8, 44, and 45
It occupies anterior part of the precentral
gyrus and posterior parts of superior,
middle, and inferior frontal gyri.
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Primary motor area

Produces:
isolated movements on the opposite side of the body
contraction of muscle groups concerned with the

performance of a specific movement

Bilateral movements of the extraocular muscles,

muscles of the upper part of the face, tongue, and

mandible, and larynx and pharynx
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Primary motor area

The movement areas of the body are

represented in inverted form in the precentral

gyrus
Starting from below and passing superiorly are

structures involved in swallowing and the

tongue, jaw, lips, larynx, eyelid, and brow.
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Primary motor area

The next area is an extensive region for
movements of the fingers, especially the thumb,
hand, wrist, elbow, shoulder, and trunk.
movements of the hip, knee, and ankle are
represented in the highest areas of the
precentral gyrus
66

Primary motor area

Movements of the toes and anal and
vesical sphincters are situated on the
medial surface, in the paracentral
lobule.

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Primary motor area

Area of cortex controlling a particular movement

is:
proportional to the skill involved in performing the

movement
But, it is unrelated to the mass of muscle

participating in the movement.

Thus, the function of this area is to carry out the

individual movements of different parts of the body

68

Primary motor area

It receives afferent fibers from:
premotor area
sensory cortex
Thalamus
Cerebellum
basal ganglia
69

Primary motor area

This area is not responsible for the
design of the pattern of movement
But, it is the final station for
conversion of design into execution
of the movement.
70

Premotor Area
The function of this area is to store programs of
motor activity assembled as the result of past
experience.
Thus, it programs the activity of the primary motor
area.

It is particularly involved in controlling coarse

postural movements through its connections with
basal ganglia.
71

 Frontal eye field

extends forward from the precentral gyrus

into the middle frontal gyrus

Parts of Brodmann areas 6, 8, and 9
stimulation of this region causes conjugate

movements of the eyes, especially toward

the opposite side
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 The exact pathway taken by nerve fibers

from this area is not known
But they are thought to pass to the
superior colliculus of the midbrain
superior colliculus is connected to the
nuclei of the extraocular muscles by the
reticular formation.
73

 It is considered to control voluntary

scanning movements of the eye and
is independent of visual stimuli.
It is connected to visual area of the
occipital cortex by association fibers.

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 Motor speech area of Broca

It is located
in the inferior frontal gyrus
between the anterior and ascending rami
and the ascending and posterior rami of the
lateral fissure (Brodmann areas 44 and 45)

Ablation of this area will result in

paralysis of speech.
75

Motor speech area of Broca

It brings about the formation of
words by its connections with the
adjacent primary motor areas;
muscles of the larynx...

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 Prefrontal cortex
It is an extensive area that lies anterior to the
precentral area.
It includes the greater parts of the superior,
middle, and inferior frontal gyri; the orbital
gyri; most of the medial frontal gyrus; and
anterior half of the cingulate gyrus
Brodmann areas 9, 10, 11, and 12
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Prefrontal cortex
Connects to areas of the cerebral cortex, the
thalamus, the hypothalamus, and the corpus
striatum by of afferent and efferent pathways
frontopontine fibers also connect this area to the
cerebellum through the pontine nuclei.
corpus callosum unite these areas in both cerebral
hemispheres.
78

Prefrontal cortex
Functions:
It is concerned with the makeup of the individual's
personality.
plays a role as a regulator of the person's depth of
feeling
It also exerts its influence in determining the
initiative and judgment of an individual.
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Parietal Lobe
Primary somesthetic area
Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2
Occupies:
postcentral gyrus
posterior part of the paracentral lobule

80

 It receives projection fibers from

ventral posterior lateral nucleus of the
thalamus
ventral posterior medial nucleus of the
thalamus

81

 The opposite half of the body is represented as

inverted:
pharyngeal region, tongue, and jaws are represented in
the most inferior part of the postcentral gyrus
followed by the face, fingers, hand, arm, trunk, and thigh
leg and foot areas are found on the medial surface of the
hemisphere
Anal and genital regions are also found in medial surface.
82

 apportioning of the cortex for a particular part

of the body is related to its functional
importance rather than to its size.
The face, lips, thumb, and index finger have
particularly large areas

size of the cortical area allocated to each part

of the body is directly proportional to the
number of sensory receptors present
83

 Sensation reaches the cortex from:

Most part of the bodyto the
contralateral side
Oral regionto the same side
Pharynx, larynx, and perineumto both
sides
84

 The anterior part of the postcentral gyrus receives a

large number of afferent fibers from muscle
spindles, tendon organs, and joint receptors.
This sensory information is analyzed in the vertical
columns of the sensory cortex
It is then passed forward to the primary motor
cortexgreatly influences the control of skeletal
muscle activity.
85

 Secondary somesthetic area

It is in the superior lip of the posterior
limb of the lateral fissure
It is much smaller and less important
than the primary sensory area.
The face area lies most anterior, and the
leg area is posterior.
86

 Secondary somesthetic area

The body is bilaterally represented with the
contralateral side dominant.
Many sensory impulses come from the
primary area, and many signals are
transmitted from the brainstem

87

 Somesthetic association area

occupies the superior parietal lobule extending

onto the medial surface of the hemisphere

Brodmann areas 5 and 7
This area has many connections with other

sensory areas of the cortex.

88

 Somesthetic association area

its main function is to receive and integrate
different sensory modalities.
For example, it enables one to recognize objects
placed in the hand without the help of vision.
it receives information concerning the size and
shape of an object and relates this to past sensory
experiences

89

Occipital Lobe
Primary visual area (Brodmann area
17)
situated in the walls of the posterior part

of the calcarine sulcus

this area can be recognized by the

thinness of the cortex and the visual stria

90

Primary visual area

It receives afferent fibers from:
lateral geniculate body.
temporal half of the ipsilateral retina and the nasal
half of the contralateral retina.
right half of the field of vision, therefore, is
represented in the visual cortex of the left cerebral
hemisphere and vice versa.
91

 secondary visual area (Brodmann

areas 18 and 19)
surrounds the primary visual area on the
medial and lateral surfaces of the
hemisphere
This area receives afferent fibers from
area 17 and the thalamus.
92

 Secondary visual area

It function is to relate the visual
information received by the primary
visual area to past visual experiences
thus enabling the individual to recognize
and appreciate what he or she is seeing.

93

 Occipital eye field

is thought to exist in the secondary visual area
The function:
is believed to be reflex
associated with movements of the eye when it is
following an object.

It is connected in both hemispheres and also are

thought to be connected to the superior
colliculus.

94

Temporal Lobe

95

Temporal Lobe
Primary auditory area (Brodmann areas 41 and
42)
is situated in the inferior wall of the lateral
sulcus
Projection fibers to the auditory area arise
principally in the medial geniculate body
And form the auditory radiation of the internal
capsule.
96

 Primary auditory area

Its anterior part is concerned with the
reception of sounds of low frequency
Its posterior part is concerned with the
sounds of high frequency.

97

 Secondary auditory area (auditory

association cortex) (Brodmann area 22).

situated posterior to the primary auditory

area in the lateral sulcus and in the superior

temporal gyrus
It receives impulses from the primary

auditory area and from the thalamus.

98

Secondary auditory area

It is necessary for:
interpretation of sounds
association of the auditory input with
other sensory information.

99

 Sensory speech area of Wernicke

It is localized in the superior temporal gyrus, with
extensions around the posterior end of the lateral
sulcus into the parietal region.
It is connected to the Broca area by a bundle of nerve
fibers called the arcuate fasciculus.
It receives fibers from visual cortex and auditory
cortex
100

 Functions:
permits the understanding of the written and spoken

language
enables a person to read a sentence, understand it,

and say it out loud

It represents the site where somatic, visual, and

auditory association areas all come together

it is an area of very great importance.
101

Other Cortical Areas

Taste area
is situated at the lower end of the
postcentral gyrus (Brodmann area 43).

Vestibular area
Its location lies opposite the auditory
area in the superior temporal gyrus.
102

Vestibular area
Functions:
Appreciation of the positions and
movements of the head in space.
Influences movements of eyes and
muscles of the trunk and limbs in the
maintenance of posture.
103

 Insula
It is believed to be important for
planning or coordinating the articulatory
movements necessary for speech.

104