Divided into 3 chemical

layer: Core, Mantle and

Crust
Core::Iron.Nickel, Very hot
Mantle::Elements
iron,magnesium,Silicon,Oxy
gen
Crust:Rich in the elements
of oxygen and silicon; Lesser
amonuts of aluminium,iron
magnesium,calcium,potassiu
m and sodium

THE SIZE OF THE EARTH ABOUT 12.750 KM IN DIAMETER

BENEATH THE OCEANS THICKNESS OF THE CRUST
EXTENDING ONLY TO ABOUT 5 KM AND BENEATH
CONTINENTS IS MUCH MORE VARIABLE BUT AVERAGE
ABOUT 30 KM. THE BASE OF THE CRUST CAN BE AS DEEP
AS100 KM
BELOW THE CRUST IS THE
MANTLE:dense,hot layer,
semi solid rock and 2.900 km
thick.
At the center of the Earth lies
the CORE: nearly twice as
dense as the mantle.
Core is actually made up of
two distict part: 2.200 km
thick luquid outer core and
a1.250 km thick solid inner
core.
As the Earth rotates, the liquid
outer core spins creating the

The lithosphere is the rigid

outermost layer made of crust
and uppermost mantle,The
lithosphere is the plate of the
plate tectonic theory. Thee
asthenosphere is part of the
mantle that flow, a characteristic
called plastic behavior,It might
seem strange that a solid material
can flow.A good example of a
solid that flows, or plastic
behavior, is the movement of
toothpaste in a tube. The flow of
the asthenosphere is part of
mantle convection, which play an
important role in moving
lithosphere plates

The term crust and

mantle have compositional
implications lithosphere
and asthenosphere
describe physical
properties. The
lithosphere includes the
crust and uppermost
mantle.The asthenosphere
lies enterely within the
upper mantle. Below it,
the rest of the mantle is
more rigidly solid again

Threre are three main plate tectonic

environments: Extensional,transform
and compressional.Plate boundaries is
different localities are subject to
different inter plate stresses, producing
these three types of earthquakes.Each
type has its own special hazards

The ways that plates interact depend on their relative motion and weather oceanic
or continental crust is at the edge of the lithospheric plate.Plate move away from,
toward or slide past each other.Geologist call these Divergent, Convergent and
Transform plate boundaries

At divergent plate boundary lithospheric platyes move away from

each other. The Mid Atlantic Ridge, a topographically high area near
the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, is an example of a divergent plate
boundary

MID ATLANTIC RIDGE

DENGAN PEMEKARAN
PUNGGUNGAN DASAR
SAMUDERA
(Sumber World Ocean
Floor Map,Bruce et all
1977)

Across Europe, most of the results

from the SLR analysis exhibit
northeastward motion on the order of
25-30 mm/yr

The vectors plotted in this map of

Greese are now relative to fixed
northern Europe. This provide a sense
of how the crust in the Aegean is
literally streching from north to south.
The block of crustal material along the
arc of islands in the southern Aegean is
overriding the African plate.

At a convergent plate boundary,lithosperic plate move to ward ecah

other.The west margin of the South American continent,whree the
oceanic Nazca Plate is pushed to ward and beneath the continental
portion of the South American Plate, is an example of a convergent
plate boundary

There are 3 SLR stations plotted in

this map.
The two sites in South America,
Arequipa and Santigo, are located
in the deforming collisoin boundary
zone between the Nazca plate and
the South America plate. The Nazca
plate subducts beneath South
America and, like the case at
Simosato, a portion of the
subduction motion is being
transferred into portion of the overriding plate.

STRUKTUR
PATAHAN DAN LIPATAN
YANG DIHASILKAN
KONVERJENSI KERAK
BENUA (ALASKA)

From NASA/JSC;topography from

NOAA

At compressional boundaries,
earthquakes are found in several
settings ranging from the very near
surface to several hundred
kilometers depth, sice the coldness
of subducting plate permits brittle
failure down to as much as 700 km.
Compressional boundaries host
Earths largest quakes,with some
event on subduction zones in Alaska
and Chile having exceeded
magnitude 9.
This oblique orbital view looking
east over Indonesia shows the
clouded tops of the chain of large
volcanoes.The topography below
shows the Indian plate streaked by
hotspot traces and healed
transforms, subducting at the Javan
Trench

At a transform plate boundary, plates slide past each other. The

San Andreas fault in California is an example of a transform
plate boundary, where the Pasific Plate slides past the North
American Plate

These involve four sites, two

in Mexico and two in southern
California. At the southern
tipof the Baja Peninsula is
Cabo San Lucas. Here SLR
astimates a motion which is 52
mm/yr, in good agreement
with that expected from the
NNR-NURVEL1A model of
Pasific motion.
There is an 8 degree difference in the direction, an explanation for which is lacking
at this time. Further north, at Ensenada the SLR estimate of motion agress very
well with Pasific NNR-NURVEL1A motion. To the northeast os Ensenada, we
cross into the United States and we see that the motions estimated from SLR for
the sites at Otay Mountain and Monument Peak are somewhat slower than the
NNR-NURVEL1A model suggest and differ approximately 10 degrees in direction.

At transform, earthquakes are shallow,

running as deep as 25 km;mechanisms
indicate strike-slip motion.Transforms
tend to have earthquakes smaller than
magnitude 8.5.
The San Andreas fault in California is a
nearby example of a transform,
separating the Pasific from the North
American plate. At transforms the
plates mostly slide past each other
laterally, producing less sinking or lifing
of the ground than extensional or
compressional environments. The
yellow dots below locate earthquakes
along strands of this fault system in the
San Francisco bay area

The result for the motion of

the
SLR
site
at
Simosato,Japan is important
interest,especially in light of
the recent earthquake in
nearby Kobe,Japan (moving
south-southwesterly
about
2mm/yr.
At Shanghai, the motion
recovered from the SLR
analysis deviates from that
The NNR-NURVEL-1A model for Eurasia motion.The SLR system at shanghai is
a neighbor to a VLBI system has a very reliable observation campaign.
The SLR result in Yaragadee and Orroral,Australia exhibit motion that is very
good agreement with that expected from NNR-NURVEL!A model for Australia
motion

Continental drift was originally

proposed by Alfred Wegener, a
German meteorogist in 1912.
Wegner used the fit of the
continents, the distribution of
fossils, a similar sequence of
rock at numerous
locations,ancient climates, and
the apparent wandering of the
Earths polar regions to support

His idea. Wegener used his observations to hypothesize that all of the present day
continents were once part of a single supercontinent called PANGAEA

According to the
continental drift theory, the
supercontinent Pangaea
began to break up about
225-200 million years ago,
eventually fragmenting into
the continents as we know
them today

Fosil of the same species were found on

several different continents.Wegener
proposed that the species dispersed
when the continents were connected and
later carried to their present positions
as the continents drifted. For example,
Glossopteris,afern, was found on the
continents of South America,Africa,

India and Australia. If the continents are reassembled inti Pangaea, the
distribution of Glossopteris can be accounted for over a much smaller contiguous
geographic area. The distribution of other species can also be accounted for by
initially spreading across Pangaea, followed by the breakup of the supercontinent,
and movement of the continents to their present positions

Rock sequences in South

America,Africa, India, Antartica and
Australia show remarkable
similarities.Wegener showed that the
same three layers occur at each of the
localities. The bottom (oldest) layer is
called tillite and is thought to be glacial
deposit. The middle layer is composed
of sandstone, shale, and coal beds.

Glossopteris fossils are in the bottom

and middle layers. The top (youngest)
layer is lava flows. The same three
layers are in the same order in areas
now separated by great distances. Wegener proposed that the rock layers were
made when all the continents were part of Pangaea. Thus, they formed in a smal
contiguous area that was later broken and driftrd apart

POLA MOSAIK BERBENTUK GERGAJI, DIPERKIRAKAN

BENUA AMERIKA DAN AFRIKA PERNAH BERSATU,
DAN TERPISAH AKIBAT PENGAPUNGAN BENUA

Glaciation in South America,Africa,India and Australia is best explained if these

continents were once connected. Glaciers covered all part of each of these
continents during the same time period in geologic past.
If the continents were in their present position, a major glaciation event that
covered nearly all of the continents and extended north of the equator would be
required. Geologist have found no evidence of glacial action in the northern
hemisphere during this time period.In fact, during this time period, the climate in
North America was warm. Wegener proposed that the continents werew adjacent
to each other during the glacial event. Therefore,glaciers spread over a much
smaller area in the southern hemisphere and probably did not influence the

Wegener used the

distrbution of spesific
rock types to determine
the distribution of climate
zones in the geologic past.
For example, glacial till
and striations (scratches
on the rock), sand dunes,
and coral reefs, indicates
polar, desert and tropical
climates, respectively.
The present climate zone are shown in the above figure. Note
how the distribution of reefs, deserts, and glacial ice constrain
the position of the rotational pole of the Earth

Using the distribution of rock

types, Wegener reconstrcted
the distribution of climates
zones at specific times in the
geologic past. He found that,
unlike the present
distribution, in which zones
parallel the equator, the past
zones occupied very different
position. The implies that the
rotational pole was in very
different locations relative
today.
Wegener proposed an alternative interpretation. He believed that the
climate zones remained stationary and the continents drifted to
different locations. The drift of the continents caused the apparent
movement of the climate zones

Wegener used the distribution of

climate zones to determine the
location of the poles at different
times in the geologic past. He
found that the rotational pole
appears to gradually change
location, arriving at its present
position only in the very recent
geologic past.
The apparent movement in the pole position over time is called polar
wandering. Wegener offered an alternative explanation. He
suggested that the poles remained stationary and that the continents
changed their positions relative to the poles

Wegeners model was not accepted

by all geologist. Some thought that
dispersion by winds or ocean
current could explain the
distribution of fossil species. Other
geologists thought the pole might
wander and continents remain
stationary. Many geologists thought
Wegeners evidence was insufficient.
The greatest shortcoming, at least in the eyes of American geologist, was the lack
of an adequate mechanism for moving the continents.Wegener proposed that the
Earths spin caused the continents to move, plowing through the oceanic plate and
producing mountains on their leading edges. Geologists at that time understood
enough about the strengthh of rocks to know that this was highly unlikely.
Wegeners work was largely unsccepted in the northen hemisphere.In the
southern hemisphere, where geologists were familiar with the rocks that Wegener
used to support his hypothesis, continental drift was generally accepted

A mechanism to move continents was proposed by Arthur Holmes,Scottish

geologist in 1928.He believed heat trapped in the Earth caused convection current,
area where fluids beneath yhe Earths crust rise, flow laterally, and then fall. The
currents would rise beneath continents, spread laterally, then plunge beneath the
oceans ( Geologists now know that solid rock, not fluids, convect in mantle).
Unfortunately, Wegner died in 1930 whilw exploring the Greenland ice cap. He
never had the opportunity to adapt Holmes ideas to his views of continental drift

In 1962, ageologist presented an

explanation for the global rift system.
Harry Hess proposed that new ocean
floor is formed at the rift of mid ocean
ridge. The ocean floor, and the rock
beneath it, are produced by magma that
rises from deeper levels. Hess suggested
that the ocean floor moved laterally
away from the ridge and plunged into
an oceanic trench along the continental
margin.
In Hess model, convection current push the the ocean floor from the mid ocean
ridge to the trench. The convection currents might also help move the continents,
much like a conveyor belt.
As Hess formulated his hypothesis, Robert Dietz indepedently proposed a similar
model and called it sea floor spreading.

Before being
In the late 1950s
widely accepted,
scientists mapped the
a new hypothesis
present-day
must be tested.
magnetic field
One test for the
generated by by
sea floor
rocks on the floor of
spreading
the Pasific ocean.
hypothesis
The volcanic rocks
involved
which make up the
magnetic
sea floor have
patterns on the
magnetization
sea floor
Because, as they cool, magnetic minerals within the rock align to the Earth,s
magnetic field. The intensity of the magnetic field they measured was very
different from the intensity they had calculated. Thus the scientists detected
magnetic anomalies, or differences in the magnetic field from place to place. They
found positive and negative magnetic anomalies. Positive magnetic anomalies are
place where where the magnetic field is stronger than expected. Negative magnetic
anomalies are magnetic anomalies that are weaker than expected

When mapped the anomalies produce a zebra-striped pattern of

parallel positive and negative bands. Tha pattern was centered
along, and symmetrical to the Mid Oceanic Ridge.

The ocean floor is made up largely of

basalt, a volcanic rock rich in
ferromagnesian minerals.
In 1963, an elegant explanation was
proposed by the team of F.J.Vine and
D.H.Matthews, and indenpedently by
L.W.Morley. Ther magnetic stripes
could be explained as a result of
Seafloor Spreading, the moving apart of
lithosphere plates at the ocean ridge.
The magma rises, cools and solidifies to
form new basaltic rock, which becomes
magnetized in the prevailing direction
of the earths magnetic field. If the
plates continue to move apart, the new
rock will also split and part, making
way for more magma to form still
younger rock.

Devt (fig7)

A hypothesis was presented in 1963 by Fred Vine and Drummond

Matthews to explain this pattern.They proposed that lava erupted at
different times along the rift at the crest of the Mid-oceanic ridges
preserved different magnetic anomalies.

Lava erupted in geologic past, when the north magnetic pole was in
the northern hemisphere, preserved a positive magnetic anomaly.
In contrast, Lava erupted in the geologic past, when the north
magnetic pole was in the southern hemisphere, preserved a negative
magnetic anomaly

Lava erupting at the present time

would preserve a positive
magnetic anomaly because the
Earths north magnetic pole in
the northern hemisphere.
Vine and Matthews proposed
that lava erupted on the sea floor
on both sides of the rift,
solidified, and moved away
before more lava was erupted. If the Earths magnetic field had
reversed (changed from one geographic pole to the other) between
the two eruptions, the lava flows would preserve a set of parallel
bands with different magnetic properties. The ability of Vine and
Matthews hypothesis to explain the observed pattern of ocean floor
magnetic anomalies provided strong support for sea floor spreading.

intro13f1

CONVERGENT PLATE
BOUNDARIES
A. Continent-continent collision
B. Ocean-ocean convergence

C. Subduction zone at ocean-con

tinent convergence

We can also look at the rock cycle in

Plate-Tectonic context.
New igneous rocks form from magmas
rising out of the atmosphere at
spreading ridges or in subduction zones.
The heat radiated by the cooling magmas can cause metamorphism, with
recrystalization at an elevated temperature changing the texture and/or the
mineralogy of the surrounding rock. Some of these surrounding rocks may
themselves melt to form new igneous rocks. The forces of plate collision at
convergent margins also contribute to metamophism by increasing the pressures
acting on the rocks.It is described also that weathering and erosion on the
continents wear down preexisting rocks of all kinds into sediment.Much of this
sediment is eventually transported to the edges of the continents, where it is
deposited in deep basin.

A driving force for plate tectonics

has not been definitely identified.
For many years, the most widely
accepted explanation was that the
plates were moved by large
convection cells slowly churning in
the plastic asthenosphere.
According to this figure, hot material rise at the spreading ridges; some melt
escapes to form new lithosphere, but the rest of the rising asthenosphere material
spreads out sideways beneath the lithosphere, slowly cooling in the process. As it
flows outward, it drags the overlying lithosphere outward with it, thus continuing
to open the ridges. When it cools, the flowing material becomes dense enough to
sink back deeper into the asthenosphere, for example under subduction zones.

Computer generated detailed topographic map of a segment of the

Mid-Oceanic Ridge. Warm colors (yelloww to red) indicate the
ridge rising above the seafloor, and the cool colors (green to blue)
represent lower elevations. This image (at latitude 9 o north) is of a
small part of the East Pasific Rise (Imagery courtecy of Stacey
Tighe, University of Rhode Island)

A satellite view of the Sinai shows two arms of the Red Sea spreading ridge,
exposed on land. Extensional ridges exist elsewhere in the solar system, although
they never attain the globe encircling extent the oceanic ridges have on Earth.

Earthquakes and Volcanoes,

evidedence of unrest in the
Earth, help locate the edges of
plates.Earthquakes are
distributed in narrow, linear belt
that circle the Earth. Some of
these belt have omly shallow (020 miles;0-35Km) earthquakes,
like the mid Atlantic and
eastbPasific ridges.In contrast,
earthquakes in other belts
Like western South America and south-central Asia, are at shaloow, intermediate
(20-45 miles;30-70km), and deep 45-450 miles; 70-700 km) levelsw.
Volcanoes are also distributed in long belts that circle the Earth.A dramatic
example is the line of volcanoes that circles most of the Pasific Ocean. This belt is
known as the RING OF FIRE because it is the site of frequent volcanic eruption

The distribution of earthquakes

and volcanoes coincides at most
locations. The Ring of Fire is an
excelent example. Geologist
believe that areas of intense
geologic activity, indicated by
earthquakes.
Volcanoes, and/or mountain building, mark the boundaries between lithospheric
plates. The distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain ranges define 7
large plates and 20 smaler plates. The Nazca and Juan de Fuca Plates consist of
only oceanic lithosphere. The Pasific Plate is mostly oceanic litrhosphere only a
small slice of continental lithosphere in southern California and baja Mexico.
Most of the other plate consist of both oceanic and continental lithosphere.

LEMPENG DUNIA DAN ARAH PERGERAKAN RELATIF

(Sumber:W.Hamilton,U.S.Geological Survey)

POLA UMUR DASAR SAMUDERA DAN AKTIVITAS

PEMEKARAN DASAR SAMUDERA, BATUAN RELATIF MUDA
TERDAPAT DEKAT PUNGGUNGAN ( Sumber: W.C.Pitman III et
all, USGS,1974)

DISTRIBUSI GUNUNG API MUDA DAN PUSAT GEMPA

REGIONAL (Sumber peta dari NOAA,1981)