HBK Tp HCM-Khoa -T

BMT
GVPT: H Trung M
Mn hc: Quang in T

QDT
Chng 5

Si quang
(Optical Fiber)

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

Optical Fiber
Communication system with light as the carrier and
fiber as communication medium
Propagation of light in atmosphere impractical: water
vapor, oxygen, particles.
Optical fiber is used, glass or plastic, to contain and
guide light waves
Capacity

Microwave at 10 GHz with 10% utilization ratio: 1 GHz BW

Light at 100 Tera Hz (1014 ) with 10% utilization ratio:
10 THz (10,000GHz)

History
1880 Alexander G. Bell, Photo phone, transmit sound waves
over beam of light
1930: TV image through uncoated fiber cables.
Few years later image through a single glass fiber
1951: Flexible fiberscope: Medical applications
1956:The term fiber optics used for the first time
1958: Paper on Laser & Maser
1960: Laser invented
1967: New Communications medium: cladded fiber
1960s: Extremely lossy fiber: more than 1000 dB /km
1970, Corning Glass Work NY, Fiber with loss of less than 2
dB/km
70s & 80s : High quality sources and detectors
Late 80s : Loss as low as 0.16 dB/km
4

Optical Fiber: Advantages

Capacity: much wider bandwidth (10 GHz)

Crosstalk immunity

Immunity to static interference

Safety: Fiber is nonmetalic

Longer lasting (unproven)

Security: tapping is difficult

Economics: Fewer repeaters

Disadvantages

higher initial cost in installation

Interfacing cost
Strength: Lower tensile strength
Remote electric power
more expensive to repair/maintain
Tools: Specialized and sophisticated

Advantage of Optical Fiber

Communication

Enormous potential bandwidth

Small size and weight
Electrical isolation
Immunity to interference and crosstalk
Signal security
Low transmission
Flexibility
System reliability and ease of maintenance
Potential low cost
7

Optical Fiber Link

Input
Signal

Transmitter
Coder or
Light
Converter Source

Source-to-Fiber
Interface

Fiber-optic Cable

Fiber-to-light
Interface

Light
Detector

Amplifier/Shaper Output
Decoder

Receiver

Light source: LED or ILD (Injection Laser

Diode):

amount of light emitted is proportional to the drive

current

Source to-fiber-coupler (similar to a lens):

A mechanical interface to couple the light
emitted by the source into the optical fiber
Light detector: PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type)
or APD (avalanche photo diode) both convert
light energy into current
9

(Thanh/phin)

(Dai [mong])

(Si)
10

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

11

Optical fiber: a cylindrical waveguide made of glass,

with very low index contrast and large core size
In multi-mode fibers, dcore >>

cladding
core

dcore

Step-index fiber
n = ncore nclad <<1, typical n =
0.001 ~ 0.02
Common dopants for SiO2 fiber
Ge, B, Ti
Numerical Aperture (NA)
Light gathering power a
For a silica fiber with ncore = 1.44 &
nclad = 1.46, a = 11.9, NA = 0.209

2
2
NA ncore
nclad
sin a

1m
Single-mode
fiber core
Silicon
waveguide
12

13

14

15

Total internal reflection, Critical angle

2
ki

Incident
light

Transmitted
(refracted)light
kt
n2
kr

n 1 >n2

Reflected
light
(a)

n
sin c 2
n1

2 90

c
Critical angle

(b)

Evanescentwave

1 c TIR
1

(c)

Lightwavetravellinginamoredensemediumstrikesalessdensemedium.Dependingon
theincidenceanglewithrespectto c ,whichisdeterminedbytheratiooftherefractive
indices,thewavemaybetransmitted(refracted)orreflected.(a)1 c (b)1 c (c)
1 candtotalinternalreflection(TIR).

n2
sin c
n1

[2-19]

16

Critical Angle critical (or c)

As the angle of incidence in the first material is
increased, there will come a time when, eventually, the
angle of refraction reaches 90 and the light is refracted
along the boundary between the two aterials. The angle
of incidence which results in this effect is called the
critical angle.
We can calculate the value of the critical angle by
assuming the angle of refraction to be 90 and
transposing Snells law:
n1sin(1)= n2sin(90)

17

18

19

The transmission of a light ray

in a perfect optical fiber

The light ray shown in the above figure is known as a

meridional ray as it passes through the axis of the fiber core.
This type of ray is the simplest to describe and is generally
used when illustrating the fundamental transmission properties
of optical fibers.
20

Fiber Optics use Visible & Infrared

21

The infrared windows used in fiber optics

22

The Complete Optic Fiber

23

Three points which are important to

appreciate
The optic fiber is solid, there is no hole through the
middle.
The buffer and the jacket are only for mechanical
protection.
The light is transmitted through the core but to a
small extent, it travels in the cladding and so the
optical clarity of the cladding is still important.
24

Why does the light enter the cladding?

If the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, the
light ray is reflected back into the first material by the process
of refraction (TIR).
To be refracted it must enter the cladding,
An opaque (unclear) cladding would prevent the ray from
being propagated along the fiber since the light would not be
able to pass through the cladding.

Light enter cladding

during reflection

25

Acceptance angle a

The acceptance angle a when launching light into an optical fiber

is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may

enter the fiber in order to be propagated, and is often
referred to as the acceptance angle for the fiber.
26

Numerical aperture (NA)

The ray path for a meridional ray launched into an optical fiber in
air at an input angle less than the acceptance angle for the fiber.

where
Chu y: Anh sang ti t chn
khng hay khng kh co n0=1

27

Example 6.1:

Solution.

(a)The critical angle c at the corecladding interface

(b)The NA

(c)The a
28

Example 6.2:

Solution.

29

Typical fiber NA
Silica fibers for long-haul transmission are
designed to have numerical apertures from about 0.1
to 0.3.
The low NA makes coupling efficiency tend to be poor, but
turns out to improve the fibers bandwidth!

Plastic, rather than glass, fibers are available for

short-haul communications (e.g. within an
automobile). These fibers are restricted to short
lengths because of the relatively high attenuation in
plastic materials.
Plastic optical fibers (POFs) are designed to have high
numerical apertures (typically, 0.4 0.5) to improve coupling
efficiency, and so partially offset the high propagation losses
and also enable alignment tolerance.
30

Skip distance

The skip distance, Ls, is a measure of the distance between successive reflections.

31

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

32

Names of different rays

The skew ray (tia lch hay
nghing) does not pass
through the center .

The meridional ray (tia kinh

tuyn) passes through the
center.
The axial ray (tia [hng]
trc) stays in the center all
the time.
33

Modes (cach/ch )
Discrete Set of
Paths Allowed
Modes

Number of Modes

Core

Off Axis
Modes

Wavelength of
Light
Fiber Properties

Axial (Fundamental
Mode)

34

Modes
Since optical fiber is a waveguide, light can propagate in a
number of modes. If a fiber is of large diameter, light
entering at different angles will excite different modes
while narrow fiber may only excite one mode
Multimode propagation will cause dispersion, which
results in the spreading of pulses and limits the usable
bandwidth
Single-mode fiber has much less dispersion but is more
expensive to produce. Its small size, together with the fact
that its numerical aperture is smaller than that of
multimode fiber, makes it more difficult to couple to light
sources
35

Multimode fiber
Multimode fibers have larger cores (about 62.5 microns
in diameter) and transmit infrared light (wavelength = 850 to
1300 nm). Used to transmit signals (used in computer
networks, local area networks).
Multimode Step Index fiber (MMSI):
In which the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout and
undergoes an sudden (step) at the core -cladding boundary. It allows a
multiple modes to propagate through this fiber.

Multimode Graded Index fiber (MMGI):

The core refractive index is made to vary as a function of the radial
distance from the center of the core of the fiber It allows a multiple
modes to propagate along it.
36

37

38

39

40

41

Types of Optical Fiber

Single Mode (n
cach)
5-10microns
Wide bandwidth

Single
Mode

Multimode (a cach)

Graded
Index
Muntimode

GI (chit sut bin i

u)
LANs

Step (chit sut

bc)

Step Index
Multimode

Medical/Laser

42

43

Single mode fiber

Single mode Step Index fiber (SMSI): Only a single
path exists through the cable core through which light can
travel. The SMSI fiber has small cores (2-10 m in
diameter) and transmit infrared laser light (wavelength =
1300 to 1550 nm).
Used to transmit one signal per fiber (used in telephones
and cable TV).

44

Single mode step index fiber

(c) Single mode step index fiber

45

SM vs. MM
The single-mode step index fiber has advantage of low
intermodal dispersion, as only one mode is transmitted,
whereas with multimode step index fiber considerable
dispersion may occur due to the differing group velocities of
the propagating modes.
For lower bandwidth applications multimode fibers have
several advantages over single-mode fibers. These are:
The use of spatially incoherent optical sources
larger numerical apertures, as well as core diameters,
facilitating easier coupling to optical sources
lower tolerance requirements on fiber connectors.
46

The number of guided modes

The number of guided modes is dependent upon the physical
parameters, i.e.
Relative refractive index difference,
Core radius a
The wavelengths of the transmitted light

which are included in the normalized frequency V for the fiber.

V

a n1 ( 2 )

1/ 2

1/ 2
a NA , NA n1 ( 2 )

n1 n2
2n12

There is a cutoff value of normalized frequency Vc for guided modes

below which they cannot exist.
The total number of guided modes or mode volume Ms for a step index
fiber is related to the V value for the fiber by the approximate expression:

47

Example

48

Example:
Calculate the cut off number ( normalized frequency ) and number of modes supported by the
step index fiber with n1 = 1.53, n2 = 1.5 and with a core radius of 50m operating at 1550 nm.

1846

49

Graded index fibers

Graded index fibers do not have a constant
refractive index in the core but a decreasing core
index n(r) with radial distance from a maximum
value of n1 at the axis to a constant value n2 beyond
the core radius a in the cladding.
This index variation may be represented as:

where is the relative refractive index difference and

is the profile parameter which gives the characteristic
refractive index profile of the fiber core.
50

Refractive index profile

The refractive index profile of the fiber core as a
variation of , allows representation of the step
index profile when = , a parabolic profile when
= 2 and a triangular profile when = 1
The graded index
profiles which
at present produce
the best results for
multimode optical
propagation have a
near parabolic
refractive index
profile core with ~2
51

Ray diagram in graded index fiber

An expanded ray diagram showing refraction at the various high to low index
interfaces within a graded index fiber, giving an overall curved ray path

52

Ray transmission in a MMGI fiber

53

A helical skew ray path within a graded

index fiber

54

 The rays traveling close to the fiber axis have shorter paths
when compared with rays which travel into the outer regions
of the core.
The near axial rays are transmitted through a region of
higher refractive index and therefore travel with a lower
velocity than the more extreme rays.
Multimode graded index fibers exhibit far less intermodal
dispersion
Multimode graded index fibers have the advantage of large
core diameters (greater than 30 m) coupled with
bandwidths suitable for long distance communication.
Graded index fibers, therefore, accept less light than
corresponding step index fibers with the same relative
refractive index difference.
55

Example

NA n1 (2)

1/ 2

n1 n2
2n12

For a parabolic refractive index profile core fiber ( =

2), Mg = V2/4, which is half the number supported by a
step index fiber ( = ) with the same V value.

56

Single-mode fibers
The advantage of the propagation of a single mode within
an optical fiber is that the signal dispersion caused by the
delay differences between different modes in a
multimode fiber may be avoided
for the transmission of a single mode the fiber must be
designed to allow propagation of only one mode, while all
other modes are attenuated by leakage or absorption
Single-mode propagation in step index fibers is possible
over the range: 0 V < 2.405

57

Example
Consider a fiber with diameter 8m, n 1=1.45 and
=0.92% If this fiber is operated at 1550 mm, how
many modes will it have?
Ans.Normalized cut off frequency.

508

Example
Calculate the diameter of the fiber core of relative refractive index
difference is 10%, core refractive index n1 = 1.5, No. of modes
propagation is 1100 and wavelength of operation is 1.3m.

Ans.

Omar Abu-Ella
59

Example
Estimate the maximum core diameter for an optical fiber with the same relative
refractive index difference (1.5%) and core refractive index (1.48) in order that it
may be suitable for single-mode operation. It may be assumed that the fiber is
operating at the same wavelength (0.85 m). Further, estimate
The maximum core diameter for single-mode operation when the relative
refractive index difference is reduced by a factor of 10.
Solution: Considering the relationship given by (0 V < 2.405), the maximum V
value for a fiber which gives single-mode operation is 2.4. Hence, from
(V = an1(2)1/2) the core radius a is:

= 1.3 m
Therefore the maximum core diameter for single-mode operation is
approximately 2.6 m. Reducing the relative refractive index difference by a
factor of 10 and again using (V = an1(2)1/2)

Hence the maximum core diameter for single-mode operation is now

approximately 8 m.

60

Step and Graded Index Fibers

n2
n1
3
2
1

(a) Multimode step

index fiber. Ray paths
are different so that
rays arrive at different
times.

(b) Graded index fiber.

Ray paths are different
but so are the velocities
along the paths so that
all the rays arrive at the
same time.

n2

O'

O''

3
2
1
2
3

n1
n2

1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

61

Total Internal Reflection

(a)

TIR

ndecreasesstepbystepfromonelayer
tonextupperlayer;verythinlayers.

(b)

TIR

Continuousdecreaseinngivesaray
pathchangingcontinuously.

(a)Arayinthinlystratifedmediumbecomesrefractedasitpassesfromone
layertothenextupperlayerwithlower nandeventuallyitsanglesatisfiesTIR.
(b)Inamediumwherendecreasescontinuouslythepathoftheraybends
continuously.
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics(PrenticeHall)

62

Skew Rays (cac tia l ch/nghing)

meridional ray = tia kinh tuyn
Alongthefiber

1,3

(a)Ameridional
rayalways
crossesthefiber
axis.

Meridionalray
Fiberaxis

Skew rays circulate around the core and increase the dispersion
1

Skewray

Fiberaxis

5
4

Raypathalongthefiber

2
3

(b)Askewray
doesnothave
tocrossthe
fiberaxis.It
zigzagsaround
thefiberaxis.

Raypathprojected
ontoaplanenormal
tofiberaxis

Illustrationofthedifferencebetweenameridionalrayandaskewray.
Numbersrepresentreflectionsoftheray.
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics (PrenticeHall)

63

Fiber Key Parameters

64

Fiber Key Parameters

65

TRANSMISSION PARAMETERS

Modes
Modes are possible route that light wave
follow down in an optical fiber. One to hundred 2
& even thousand of modes are transmitted N=V
2
Normalized Frequency (V)
The number of modes that can pass
through fibre core are dependant on normalized
frequency.

V= 2a x N12 - N22

66

Numerical Aperture
This parameter describes the light gathering
ability of fibre. The amount of optical power
accepted by fibre.
The sine value of acceptance angle is called
Numerical Aperture
sin = n12 - n22
n0

n1
n2

67

Mode Field Diameter

It describes the radial propagation of fundamental mode.
A core diameter and a portion of cladding is called MFD.
The mode field diameter of G652 fibre at 1310 nm is 8.6 to
9.6m. The MFD for G655 fibre at 1550 nm is 8 to 11m with
deviation less than 10%. It is a performance measure of fibre
when coupled to light source.
Mode Field Concentricity Error
The distance between the core centre and cladding centre
divided by core diameter of the interconnected fibre.
The connector loss is proportional to the square of the mode
field concentricity error. The MFCE is used to reduce connector
loss. The MFCE value should not exceed .5 in both G652 and
G655 fibres.
68

Cut Off Wavelength

The

cutoff

wavelength

can

guarantee

single

mode

generation.
In shortest cable to suppress the occurrence of higher order
modes and to reduce power penalty.
e.g. for G652 fibre the cut off wavelength <1260 nm for 2m
cable, for G655 the cut off wavelength

< 1480 nm for 2 m

cable length.

69

Single-mode step-index Fiber

Advantages:

Minimum dispersion: all rays take same path, same time to

travel down the cable. A pulse can be reproduced at the
receiver very accurately.
Less attenuation, can run over longer distance without
repeaters.
Larger bandwidth and higher information rate

Disadvantages:

Difficult to couple light in and out of the tiny core

Highly directive light source (laser) is required.
Interfacing modules are more expensive
70

Multi Mode
Multimode step-index Fibers:
inexpensive; easy to couple light into Fiber
result in higher signal distortion; lower TX rate

Multimode graded-index Fiber:

intermediate between the other two types of Fibers

71

72

Comparison Of Various Fibres

S.No

MM.SI

MM.GI

SM.SI

(1)

Core dia 50m

50m

10m

(2)

Used for short

haul distance

used for short

haul distance

used for long

haul distance

(3)

Core R.I
constant
Signal is
delayed
Power
launching is
easy
LED can be
used
Splicing is easy

gradually
varies
no delay

core R.I
constant
no delay

easy

difficult

LED

Laser

easy

difficult

(4)
(5)

(6)
(7)

73

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

74

Intrinsic losses : absorption, Rayleigh scattering,

Extrinsic losses : coupling, bending, connections, defects, 75

76

77

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

Attenuation and dispersion in optical fiber

Attenuation:
reduction of light
amplitude
Dispersion:
deterioration of
waveform

85
http://www.tpub.com/neets/tm/106-13.htm

Effects of Dispersion and Attenuation

86

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

87

Fiber dispersion

88

Pulse broadening limits fiber bandwidth (data rate)

89

 For no overlapping of light pulses down on an optical fiber

link the digital bit rate BT must be less than the reciprocal of
the broadened (through dispersion) pulse duration (2).
Hence:

Another more accurate estimate of the maximum bit rate for

an optical channel with dispersion may be obtained by
considering the light pulses at the output to have a Gaussian
shape with an rms width of .

90

Multimode graded index fiber

Schematic diagram showing a multimode step index fiber, multimode

graded index fiber and single-mode step index fiber, and illustrating the
pulse broadening due to intermodal dispersion in each fiber type
91

Example:

92

93

Modal Dispersion
Highordermode

Lightpulse

Lowordermode

Broadened
lightpulse

Cladding
Core

Intensity

Intensity
Axial

Spread,

Schematicillustrationoflightpropagationinaslabdielectricwaveguide.Lightpulse
enteringthewaveguidebreaksupintovariousmodeswhichthenpropagateatdifferent
groupvelocitiesdowntheguide.Attheendoftheguide,themodescombineto
constitutetheoutputlightpulsewhichisbroaderthantheinputlightpulse.
1999S.O.Kasap,O ptoelectronics(PrenticeHall)

Modal Dispersion: Different modes travel at different

velocities, exist only in multimodal conditions
94

Intermode Dispersion (MMF)

Highordermode

Broadened
lightpulse

Cladding

Lightpulse

Lowordermode

Core

Intensity

Intensity
Axial

Spread,

GroupDelay=L/vg

L
vgmin

n1 n 2

L
c

L
vgmax

vgminc/n1.(Fundamental)
vgmaxc/n2.(Highestordermode)

/L 50ns/km
Dependsonlength!

95

Intramode Dispersion (SMF)

Dispersioninthefundamentalmode
Cladding

Input

vg(1)

Emitter

vg(2)

Veryshort
lightpulse

Intensity

Intensity

Core

Output

Intensity

Spectrum,
Spread,

GroupDelay=L/vg
Groupvelocityvg dependson
Refractiveindex=n( )
Vnumber=n( )
=(n1n2)/n1=( )

MaterialDispersion
WaveguideDispersion
ProfileDispersion
96

97

Chromatic Dispersion
Variation of refractive index with wavelength of light
The two main underlying mechanisms, material dispersion and
waveguide dispersion, naturally cancel one another, giving a zero
dispersion point 0
Control of the refractive index profile can place 0 anywhere in the
1300/1550nm wavelength range

The fibre characteristics are controlled by careful design of the

chemical composition (doping) of the glass used
Dispersion is quoted in terms of the dispersion parameter D with
units ps/(nm.km)
An indication of the pulse broadening is given by:
(D * (spectral width of the optical source) *(link distance))
Slide 98

98

99

100

Chromatic Dispersion
Dispersioncoefficient(pskm1nm1)
30

Dm

20
10

Materialdispersioncoefficient
(Dm)forthecorematerial(taken
asSiO2),waveguidedispersion
coefficient(Dw)(a=4.2m)
andthetotalorchromatic
dispersioncoefficientDch(=Dm
+Dw)asafunctionoffree
spacewavelength,

Dm+Dw

0
Dw

10
20
30
1.1

1.2

1.3
1.4
(m)

1.5

1.6

Chromatic = Material + Waveguide

(Dm Dw )
L
101

Material Dispersion
Cladding

Input

vg(1)

Emitter

vg(2)

Veryshort
lightpulse

Intensity

Intensity

Core

Output

Dm
L

Intensity

Spectrum,
Spread,

1 o 2
Allexcitationsourcesareinherentlynonmonochromaticandemitwithinaspectrumof
wavelengths.Wavesintheguidewithdifferentfreespacewavelengthstravelatdifferent
groupvelocitiesduetothewavelengthdependenceofn1.Thewavesarriveattheendofthe
fiberatdifferenttimesandhenceresultinabroadenedoutputpulse.

Dm=materialdispersioncoefficient,psnm1km1
Material Dispersion: Refractive index n is a function of
wavelength, exists in all fibers, function of the source line width
102

Waveguide Dispersion
vg(1)

Emitter

vg(2)

Veryshort
lightpulse

Intensity

Intensity

Dw
L

Cladding

Input

Core

Output

Intensity

Spectrum,
Spread,

Waveguidedispersion:Thegroupvelocityvg(01)ofthefundamentalmodedependson
theVnumberwhichitselfdependsonthesourcewavelengthevenifn1andn2were
constant.Evenifn1andn2werewavelengthindependent(nomaterialdispersion),wewill
stillhavewaveguidedispersionbyvirtueofvg(01)dependingonVandVdepending
inverselyon.Waveguidedispersionarisesasaresultoftheguidingpropertiesofthe
waveguidewhichimposesanonlinearlmrelationship.

Dw=waveguidedispersioncoefficient

Dwdependsonthewaveguidestructure,psnm 1km1
Waveguide Dispersion: Signal in the cladding travel with a different velocity
than the signal in the core, significant in single mode conditions
103

Dispersion coefficient (ps km-1 nm-1)

20

Dm

10

SiO2-13.5%GeO2

a (m)

Dw

4.0
3.5
3.0

10

2.5

20
1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

1.6

(m)
Material and waveguide dispersion coefficients in an
optical fiber with a core SiO 2-13.5%GeO2 for a = 2.5
to 4 m.
1999 S.O. Kasap, Optoelectronics (Prentice Hall)

104

Zero Dispersion Wavelength

Dispersioncoefficient(pskm1 nm1 )
30

Dm

20
10

Dm +Dw

10

Dw

20
30
1.1

1.2

1.3
1.4
(m)

1.5

1.6

Materialdispersioncoefficient(Dm)forthecorematerial(takenas
SiO2 ),waveguidedispersioncoefficient(Dw )(a=4.2m)andthe
totalorchromaticdispersioncoefficientDch (=Dm+Dw )asa
functionoffreespacewavelength,
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics (PrenticeHall)

105

106

Polarization Dispersion
n different in different directions due to
induced strains in fiber in manufacturing,
handling and cabling. n/n106

Intensity
t
Outputlightpulse

n1y // y

n1x//x

Ey

Ex

Core
Ex

Ey

=Pulsespread

t
E
Inputlightpulse

Dpol L

Dpol=polarizationdispersioncoefficient
TypicallyDpol=0.10.5psnm1km1/2

107

Self-Phase Modulation Dispersion : Nonlinear Effect

Atsufficientlyhighlightintensities,therefractiveindexofglassnis
n=n+CI
whereCisaconstantandIisthelightintensity.Theintensityoflight
modulatesitsownphase.
Lightintensity

Imax
I

For 1pskm1
Imax3Wcm2.
nis310 .
7

2a10m,
A7.85107cm2.
Opticalpower23.5Win
thecore

Imin
n

AGaussianlightintensityspectrumandvariationof
refractiveindexduetoselfphasemodulation.
108

Zero Dispersion Shifted Fiber

Dispersion

Material
Dispersion
Zeroat1.55m

1.2m

TotalDispersion

1.4m
1.6m

Total dispersion is zero in the

Er-optical amplifier band
around 1.55 m

WaveguideDispersion

Refractive
Index

FiberAxis
OuterCladding
OuterCore
InnerCladding
InnerCore

Zero-dispersion
shifted fiber
Disadvantage: Cross
talk (4 wave mixing)

EndViewofFiber
(NottoScale)

109

Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fiber

ForWavelengthDivisionMultiplexing(WDM)avoid4wavemixing:crosstalk.
WeneeddispersionnotzerobutverysmallinErampliferband(15251620nm)
Dch=0.16psnm1km1.
Nonzerodispersionshiftedfibers
Dispersion(ps/nmkm)

Standardsinglemode
Nonzerodispersionshifted
Zerodispersionshifted

+10

1300

1400

1600

Nonzerodispersionshifted
Wavelength(nm)

1500

10

ReducedSlope

110

Nonzero Dispersion Shifted Fiber

Dispersion(ps/nmkm)

Standardsinglemode

RefractiveIndexchange(%)

Nonzerodispersionshifted
Zerodispersionshifted

+10

1.0
0.9

1300

1400

1600
1500

ReducedSlope

10

Nonzerodispersionshifted
Wavelength(nm)

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

0.6%

0.1
25

15

15

25

Radius(m)
0.4%

Nonzero dispersion shifted fiber (Corning)

Fiberwithflattened
dispersionslope

111

Dispersion Flattened Fiber

Dispersioncoefficient(pskm1nm1)
n

30
20

Dm

10
0

Dch=D m+Dw

10
Dw

20

Thinlayerofcladding
withadepressedindex

30
1.1

1.2

1.3 1.4
(m)

1.5

1.6

1.7

Dispersionflattenedfiberexample.Thematerialdispersioncoefficient(Dm)forthe
corematerialandwaveguidedispersioncoefficient(Dw)forthedoublycladfiber
resultinaflattenedsmallchromaticdispersionbetween1and2.
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics (PrenticeHall)

112

Dispersion and Maximum Bit Rate

Fiber
Digitalsignal
Information

Emitter

Photodetector
Input

Output

InputIntensity

Veryshort
lightpulses

0.5
B
1/ 2

Information

OutputIntensity

0
~2

Returntozero(RTZ)bitrateordatarate.
Nonreturntozero(NRZ)bitrate=2RTZbitrate

113

Outputopticalpower
T=4

1
0.61
0.5

AGaussianoutputlightpulseandsometolerableintersymbol
interferencebetweentwoconsecutiveoutputlightpulses(yaxisin
relativeunits).Attimet=fromthepulsecenter,therelative
magnitudeise 1/2=0.607andfullwidthrootmeansquare(rms)
spreadisrms=2.
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics (PrenticeHall)

114

Dispersion and Maximum Bit Rate

Maximum Bit Rate

Dispersion

0.25 0.59
B

1/2

1/2
Dch 1/2
L

0.25L
0.25
0.59
BL

Dch Dch 1/2

Bit Rate = constant
inversely proportional to dispersion
inversely proportional to line width of laser
(single frequency lasers!)

115

Electricalsignal(photocurrent)
1
0.707

Fiber
Sinusoidalsignal
Emitter
t

Optical
Input

f=Modulationfrequency
Pi =Inputlightpower

Photodetector
Optical
Output
Po =Outputlightpower

1kHz

1MHz

1GHz

1MHz

1GHz

f el
Sinusoidalelectricalsignal

Po /Pi
0.1
0.05

1kHz

f op

Anopticalfiberlinkfortransmittinganalogsignalsandtheeffectofdispersioninthe
fiberonthebandwidth,fop.
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics (PrenticeHall)

116

Relationshipsbetweendispersionparameters,maximumbitratesandbandwidths.RZ=Return
tozeropulses.NRZ=Nonreturntozeropulses.BisthemaximumbitrateforNRZpulses.
Dispersed pulse shape
Gaussian with rms
deviation
Rectangular with full
width T

1/2 =
FWHM width
= 0.4251/2

B
(RZ)
0.25/

B
(NRZ)
0.5/

fop

fel

0.75B = 0.19/

0.71fop = 0.13/

= 0.29T =
0.291/2

0.25/

0.5/

0.69B = 0.17/

0.73fop = 0.13/

Example:Bitrateanddispersion
Consideranopticalfiberwithachromaticdispersioncoefficient8pskm1nm1atanoperating
wavelengthof1.5m.Calculatethebitratedistanceproduct(BL),andtheopticalandelectrical
bandwidthsfora10kmfiberifalaserdiodesourcewithaFWHPlinewidth1/2of2nmisused.
Solution
ForFWHPdispersion,
1/2/L=|Dch|1/2=(8pskm1nm1)(2nm)=16pskm1
AssumingaGaussianlightpulseshape,theRTZbitratedistanceproduct(BL)is
BL=0.59L/t1/2=0.59/(16pskm1)=36.9Gbs1km.
Theopticalandelectricalbandwidthsfora10kmdistanceis
fop=0.75B=0.75(36.9Gbs1km)/(10km)=2.8GHz.
fel=0.70fop=1.9GHz.

117

Combiningintermodalandintramodaldispersions
Consideragradedindexfiberwithacorediameterof30mandarefractiveindexof1.474atthe
centerofthecoreandacladdingrefractiveindexof1.453.Supposethatweusealaserdiodeemitter
withaspectrallinewidthof3nmtotransmitalongthisfiberatawavelengthof1300nm.Calculate,
thetotaldispersionandestimatethebitratedistanceproductofthefiber.Thematerialdispersion
coefficientDmat1300nmis7.5psnm1km1.Howdoesthiscomparewiththeperformanceofa
multimodefiberwiththesamecoreradius,andn1andn2?

Solution
Thenormalizedrefractiveindexdifference=(n1n2)/n1=(1.4741.453)/1.474=
0.01425.Modaldispersionfor1kmis

intermode=Ln12/[(20)(31/2)c]=2.91011s1or0.029ns.
Thematerialdispersionis
1/2=LDm1/2=(1km)(7.5psnm1km1)(3nm)=0.0225ns
AssumingaGaussianoutputlightpulseshaper,

intramode=0.4251/2=(0.425)(0.0225ns)=0.0096ns
Totaldispersionis

2
2
rms intermode
intramode
0.029 2 0.0096 2 0.030 ns

B=0.25/rms=8.2Gb
118

Comparisonoftypicalcharacteristicsofmultimodestepindex,singlemodestepindex,and
gradedindexfibers.(Typicalvaluescombinedfromvarioussources;1997
Property
= (n1n2)/n1
Core diameter (m)
Cladding diameter (m)
NA
Bandwidth distance or
Dispersion

Multimode step-index
fiber
0.02
100
140
0.3
20 - 100 MHzkm.

Attenuation of light

4 - 6 dB km-1 at 850 nm
0.7 - 1 dB km-1 at 1.3 m

Typical light source

Light emitting diode

(LED)
Short haul or subscriber
local network
communications

Typical applications

Single-mode step-index

Graded Index

0.003
8.3 (MFD = 9.3 m)
125
0.1
< 3.5 ps km-1 nm-1 at 1.3 m
> 100 Gb s-1 km in common
use
1.8 dB km-1 at 850 nm
0.34 dB km-1 at 1.3 m
0.2 dB km-1 at 1.55 m
Lasers, single mode
injection lasers
Long haul communications

0.015
62.5
125
0.26
300 MHz km - 3 GHz km
at 1.3 m
3 dB km-1 at 850 nm
0.6 - 1 dB km-1 at 1.3 m
0.3 dB km-1 at 1.55 m
LED, lasers
Local and wide-area
networks. Medium haul
communications

119

Dispersion Compensation
Input

Output

Lt

Input

Lt

Output

DispersionCompensating
Fiber

TransmissionFiber

DtLt
Veryshort
lightpulse

DtLt+DcLc

Dt

Dc

TransmissionFiber

DispersionCompnesatingFiber

Total dispersion = DtLt + DcLc = (10 ps nm-1 km-1)(1000 km) +

(100 ps nm-1 km-1)(80 km)
= 2000 ps/nm for 1080 km or 1.9 ps nm-1 km-1
120

Dispersion Compensation and Management

Compensating fiber has higher attenuation.
Doped core. Need shorter length
More susceptible to nonlinear effects.
Use at the receiver end.
Different cross sections. Splicing/coupling
losses.
Compensation depends on the temperature.
Manufacturers provide transmission fiber spliced
to inverse dispersion fiber for a well defined D vs.

121

Dispersion Managed Fiber

The inverse dispersion slope of dispersion managed fiber cancels the detrimental
effect of dispersion across the a wide spectrum of wavelength. More DWDM
channels expected in ultralong haul transmission. (Courtesy of OFS Division of
Furukawa.)
122

Dispersion for Digital Signals

Fiber

Information

Digitalsignal
Emitter
t

Photodetector
Information

Input

Output

InputIntensity

OutputIntensity

Veryshort
lightpulses

0
~2

Anopticalfiberlinkfortransmittingdigitalinformationandtheeffectof
dispersioninthefiberontheoutputpulses.
1999S.O.Kasap,Optoelectronics (PrenticeHall)
123

Different dispersion
profiles

124

Dispersion Shifting/Flattening

125

Total Dispersion
For Single Mode Fibers:
For Multi Mode Fibers:
Group Velocity Dispersion
If PMD is negligible

126

Dispersion & Attenuation

Summary

127

Solitons vs. Pulses

Solitons are pulses that keep their shape
over long distances.
Input

Output

Linear Pulse

Pulse broadening due to

dispersion

Soliton Pulse

No Pulse broadining

Characteristic
Electrical Regeneration
every 400-500 Km

More than 5000 Km

without Electrical
Regeneration.

128

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

129

Optical Fiber Telecoms System

Input

Output

Encoder

Decoder

Driver

Light Source

Amplifier
Optical Fiber

Detector

130

Optical Fiber Link

Input
Signal

Transmitter
Coder or
Light
Converter
Source

Source-to-Fiber
Interface

Fiber-optic Cable

Fiber-to-light
Interface

Light
Detector

Amplifier/Shaper
Decoder

Receiver
131

Output

Light source: LED or ILD (Injection Laser Diode):

amount of light emitted is proportional to the drive

current

Source to-fiber-coupler (similar to a lens):

A mechanical interface to couple the light emitted
by the source into the optical fiber
Light detector: PIN (p-type-intrinsic-n-type)
or APD (avalanche photo diode) both convert light
energy into current

132

Fiber Types

Plastic core and cladding

Glass core with plastic cladding PCS
(Plastic-Clad Silicon)
Glass core and glass cladding SCS: Silicaclad silica
Under research: non silicate: Zincchloride:
1000 time as efficient as glass
133

Plastic Fiber

used for short run

Higher attenuation, but easy to install
Better withstand stress
Less expensive
60% less weight

134

Light Sources
Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
made from material such as AlGaAs or GaAsP
light is emitted when electrons and holes recombine
either surface emitting or edge emitting
Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)
similar in construction as LED except ends are highly
polished to reflect photons back & forth

135

ILD versus LED

Advantages:
more focussed radiation pattern; smaller Fiber
much higher radiant power; longer span
faster ON, OFF time; higher bit rates possible
monochromatic light; reduces dispersion

Disadvantages:
much more expensive
higher temperature; shorter lifespan
136

Light Detectors
PIN Diodes
photons are absorbed in the intrinsic layer
sufficient energy is added to generate carriers in the
depletion layer for current to flow through the device

Avalanche Photodiodes (APD)

photogenerated electrons are accelerated by relatively
large reverse voltage and collide with other atoms to
produce more free electrons
avalanche multiplication effect makes APD more
sensitive but also more noisy than PIN diodes

137

Wavelength-Division
Multiplexing
WDM sends information through a single optical Fiber using lights
of different wavelengths simultaneously.
1
2
3

Multiplexer

n-1
n
Laser
Optical sources

1
2
3

Demultiplexer

Optical
amplifier

n-1
n
Laser
Optical detectors
138

On WDM and D-WDM

WDM is generally accomplished at 1550 nm.
Each successive wavelength is spaced > 1.6 nm or
200 GHz for WDM.
ITU adopted a spacing of 0.8 nm or 100 GHz
separation at 1550 nm for dense-wave-division
multiplexing (D-WDM).
WD couplers at the demultiplexer separate the
optic signals according to their wavelength.

139

Advantages of Optical Fibers

Electrical Isolation
Immunity to Interference
Increased Bandwidth
Lower Loss
Decreased Size & Weight
Remote Access
Safe
140

141

142

143

144

Applications
Communications

Long Distance Telecoms

LANs
Industrial Control
Avionics
Military

Sensing
Power Delivery
Illumination
145

146

147

148

149

150

N i dung
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Gii thiu
Nguyn tc TIR (phan xa toan phn bn trong)
Cac loai si quang
Mt mat trong si quang
Tan sc trong si quang
Gii thiu cac ng dung cua si quang
Qui trinh ch tao si quang

151

152

153

How is Optical Fiber made?

Fully Automated
Three Part Process
Preform
Drawing process
Testing &
Measurement

www.corningfiber.com

154

Preform & Melting

Heat source
Tolerances
Uniform Vapor
Deposition
Torch travel
Preform
rotation
www.fibercore.com/tour/preform.html

155

Chemical Deposition Process

Halide chemical
properties, materials
used
Volume flow rate
regulation
Composition, viscosity,
rate of heating,
thickness of deposition
controls system

www.fibercore.com/tour/preform.html

156

Preform
Heat on lathe
decreases and
sintered tube
collapses
Free fall causes the
preform to narrow
Preform is loaded
into Draw Tower
and threaded
through dies by
operator

Drawing Process

www.iec.org/tutorials/fiber_optic/topic03.html

157

FIBER DRAWING
PROCESS

www.cableu.net/fibrtech/fibr-mfg.html

158

Drawing Process
Graphite resistance element
oven (1900-2200C)
Laser micrometer gauge
tractor
controls system
Polymer Coating
Applicator

Materials and tolerances

under constant
improvement

159

Testing & Measurement

Fiber wound onto
spools for consumers
Test:

www.cableu.net/fibrtech/fibr-mfg.html

Attenuation
Bandwidth
Numerical aperture
Cut-off wavelength
Mode Field Diameter
Chromatic Dispersion
160

Testing and Measurement

Tensile Tests (tensile
strength of 100,000
psi)
Video Analyzer used
to check
Concentricity
Diameters
Coating Dimensions

www.cableu.net/fibrtech/fibr-mfg.html

161

Subwavelength-diameter silica wires

for low-loss optical wave guiding

Nature, 2003, 426, 816

162