Chapter 7A - Dispersion Models Sem2

Technical OSH Aspects
in a Chemical Plant
~Dispersion Models~
Sem 11516
PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen
Process equipment can release toxic

materials quickly in a huge amount to
spread in dangerous clouds throughout a
plant site and the local community
Such incidents are:
Explosive rupture of a process vessel as a
result of excessive pressure caused by a
runaway reaction
Rupture of a tank containing toxic materials
stored above its atmospheric boiling point.
Rupture of a train or truck transportation.
Describe how vapors are transported

downwind of a release
Valid between 100 m to 10 km
Below 100 m: use ventilation equations
Above 10 km: almost unpredictable
Results
Downwind concentration
Area affected
Downwind evacuation distances
The toxic release model represents the first three steps in the
consequence modelling procedure. These steps are
1. identifying the release incident (what process situations

can lead to a release?
2. developing a source model to describe how materials are

released and the rate of release
3. estimating the downwind concentrations of the toxic

material using a dispersion model (once the downwind
concentrations are known, several criteria are available to
estimate the impact or effect.
Various options are available, based on the predictions of

the toxic release model, for example
(1) developing an emergency response plan with the
surrounding community,
(2) developing engineering modifications to eliminate the
source of the release,
(3) enclosing the potential release and adding appropriate
vent scrubbers or other vapour removal equipment,
(4) reducing inventories of hazardous materials to reduce
the quantity released, and
(5) adding area monitors to detect incipient leaks and
providing block valves and engineering controls to
eliminate hazardous levels of spills and leaks.
The purpose of the toxic release model is to provide a tool for

performing release mitigation.
Release mitigation is defined as "lessening the risk of a release
incident by acting on the source (at the point of release) either:
(1) in a preventive way by reducing the likelihood of an event
that could generate a hazardous vapor cloud or
(2) in a protective way by reducing the magnitude of the release
(3) and/or the exposure of local persons or property."
Table 1 contains a number of measures to mitigate a release.

The example problems presented in this chapter demonstrate
that a small release can result in significant downwind impact.
In addition, this impact can occur minutes after the initial
release, reducing the time available for an emergency response
procedure.
Clearly, it is better to prevent the release in the first place.
Inherent safety, engineering design, and management should
be the first issues considered in any release mitigation
procedure.
Table 1 Release Mitigation Approaches
Major Area Examples
Inherent
safety
Inventory reduction: Less chemicals inventoried or less in process

vessels
Chemical substitution: Substitute a less hazardous chemical for
one more
hazardous
Process attenuation: Use lower temperatures and pressures
Engineering
design
Plant physical integrity: Use better seals or materials of

construction
Process integrity: Ensure proper operating conditions and
material purity
Process design features for emergency control: Emergency relief
systems
Spill containment: Dikes and spill vessels
Early vapor
detection
and warning
Detection by sensors
Detection by personnel
Managemen
t
Operating policies and procedures

Training for vapor release prevention and control
Audits and inspections
Equipment testing
Maintenance program
Management of modifications and changes to
prevent new hazards
Security
Countermeasures
Water sprays
Water curtains
Deliberate ignition of explosive cloud
Dilution
Foams
Emergency
response
On-site communications
Emergency shutdown equipment and procedures
Site evacuation
Safe havens
Personal protective equipment
Medical treatment
On-site emergency plans, procedures, training, and drills
Steam curtains Air curtains
Plume model example?
10
Puff model example?
11
Maximum
concentration
occurs
at
release point and lessen downwind due
to turbulent mixing and dispersion with
air
Factors affecting dispersion
1-Wind speed
2-Atmospheric stability
3-Ground conditions (building, water, trees)
4-Height of release above ground level
5-Momentum and buoyancy of the initial
material released
12
1-Wind speed
13
2- Atmospheric stability normal

condition
14
Atmospheric stability - inversion

This most often occurs
at night because
the ground cools rapidly
as a result of thermal radiation.
Temperature profiles for day and night situations

are shown
15
Classes of atmospheric stability

1- Unstable
the sun heats ground faster than heat can be removed
air temperature near the ground is higher than the air
temperature at higher elevations as might be observed in the
early morning hours. This results in unstable stability because
air of lower density is below air of greater density .This
influence of buoyancy enhances atmospheric mechanical
turbulence.
2- Neutral
the air above the ground warms and the wind speed increases,
reducing the effect of solar energy input , or insolation (is the
total amount of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area during a given time).
The air temperature difference does not influence

atmospheric mechanical turbulence.
16
3- Stable
the sun cannot heat the ground as fast as the
grounds cools, therefore the temperature near the
ground is lower than the air temperature at higher
elevations.
This condition is stable because the air of higher
density is below air of lower density.
The influence of buoyancy (In science, buoyancy is
an upward force exerted by a fluid that opposes the
weight of an immersed object). suppresses
mechanical turbulence.
17
3- Ground conditions : affect the mechanical mixing at the
surface and the wind
profile with height.
Trees and buildings increase mixing

Lakes and open areas decrease mixing
18
Height of the release
19
5- Buoyancy
and momentum of the material released
Change the effective height of the release

The momentum of a high-velocity jet will
carry the gas higher than the point of
release much higher effective release
height
As the gas travels downwind and is mixed
with air, a point will be reached where the
gas has been diluted adequately to be
considered neutrally buoyant dominated
by ambient turbulence
20
Buoyancy and momentum
21
Used to estimate the concentrations

(ppm) downwind of a release at the
point the mixture is neutrally buoyant
Vapor cloud dispersion type
Plume steady-state concentration of
material released from continuous source
Puff temporal concentration of material
from single release of fixed amount of
material
22
Dispersion models are based on a mass

balance. Two approaches for modeling
purpose
Use eddy diffusivities, K (units of area/time),
to represent turbulence.
Advantage: Nice tidy theoretical model
Disadvantage: K = K(x,y,z), and impossible to
measure
Use dispersion coefficients which represent

the standard deviations in the concentration
profiles
Advantage: Easy to measure and correlate
23
Coordinate system fixed at the

release source
24
Case 1: Steady-state continuous point release with no

wind
Case 2: Puff with no wind
Case 3: Non-steady-state continuous point release with no
wind
Case 4: Steady-state continuous source release with wind
Case 5: Puff with no wind and eddy diffusivity is a function
of direction
Case 6: Steady-state continuous point source release with
wind and eddy diffusivity is a function of direction
Case 7: Puff with wind
Case 8: Puff with no wind and with source on ground
Case 9: Steady-state plume with source on ground
Case 10: Continuous steady-state source with source at
height Hr above the ground
25
Eddy diffusivity, K, in case 1-10 is changed to dispersion coefficients,
2x = <C>2(ut)2-n
Case 11: Puff with instantaneous point source at ground level,
coordinates fixed at release point, constant wind only in x direction
with constant velocity u
Case 12: Plume with continuous steady-state source at ground level
and wind moving in x direction at constant velocity u
Case 13: Plume with continuous steady-state source at height H r
above ground level and wind moving in x direction at constant velocity
u
Case 14: Puff with instantaneous point source at height H r above
ground level and a coordinate system on the ground that moves with
the puff
Case 15: Puff with instantaneous point source at height H r above
ground level and a coordinate system fixed on the ground at the
release point
26
27
Case 12: Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Ground Level

and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u
The ground-level concentration is given at z = 0:
.4
The concentration along the centreline of the plume directly downwind is
given at y = z = 0:
..5
For continuous ground-level releases the maximum concentration occurs at the

release point.
28
Case 13: Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Height H, above

Ground Level and Wind Moving in x Direction at Constant Velocity u
The ground-level centreline concentrations are found by setting y = z = 0:
The maximum ground-level concentration along the x axis (C) mzx is found using
The distance downwind at which the maximum ground-level concentration occurs

is found from
29
Case 14: Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr above Ground
Level and a Coordinate System on the Ground That Moves with the Puff
The concentration along the ground at the centreline is given at y = z = 0:
30
Case 15: Puff with Instantaneous Point Source at Height Hr above Ground
Level and a Coordinate System Fixed on the Ground at the Release Point
where t is the time since the release of the puff.
31
Worst case conditions : Stability Class( F )and Wind Speed (2 m/sec)

32
Worst case condition

For a plume the highest concentration is always found at the release point. If the release
occurs above ground level, then the highest concentration on the ground is found at a
point downwind from the release.
For a puff the maximum concentration is always found at the puff centre. For a release
above ground level the puff centre will move parallel to the ground and the maximum
concentration on the ground will occur directly below the puff centre. For a puff
isopleth (The line connecting points of equal concentration around the cloud boundary
is called an isopleth )the isopleth is close to circular as it moves downwind. The
diameter of the isopleth increases initially as the
puff travels downwind, reaches a maximum, and then decreases in diameter.
The EPA suggests that F stability can exist with wind speeds as low as 1.5 m/s.
Some risk analysts use a wind speed of 2 m/s. The assumptions used in the
calculation must be clearly stated.
33
34
35
36
37
38
One of the important Toxic Effect Criteria is Emergency response planning

guidelines (ERPGs) for air contaminants issued by the American Industrial
Hygiene Association (AIHA)
These criteria and methods are based on a combination of results from

animal experiments, observations of long- and short-term human
exposures, and expert judgment. The following paragraphs define these
criteria and describe some of their features.
Three concentration ranges are provided as a consequence of exposure to

specific substance: ERGP-1, ERGP-2 and ERGP-3. ERGP-3
39
ERPG-1 :is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly
all individuals could be exposed for up 1 hour without experiencing effects other
than mild transient adverse health effects or perceiving (sensing) a clearly defined
objectionable odour.
ERPG-2 :is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly
all individuals could be exposed for up 1 hour without experiencing or developing
irreversible or other serious health effects or symptoms that could impair their
abilities to take protective action.
ERPG-3: is the maximum airborne concentration below which it is believed nearly

all individuals could be exposed for up 1 hour without experiencing or developing
life-threatening health effects.
Table 5-6 (p222) shows ERPG in ppm
40
Equation 2-7 page 58
41
Chlorine is used in a particular chemical process. A source model study

indicates that for a particular accident scenario 1.0 kg of chlorine will be
released instantaneously. The release will occur at ground level. A
residential area is 500 m away from the chlorine source.
Determine :
a.
The time required for the centre of the cloud to reach the residential
area. Assume a wind speed of 2 m/s.
b. The maximum concentration of chlorine in the residential area.

Compare this with an ERPG-1 for chlorine of 1.0 ppm. What stability
conditions and wind speed produce the maximum concentration?
42
a.
For a distance of 500 m and a wind speed of 2 m/s, the time required
for the centre of the cloud to reach the residential area is
t
x
u
500m
2m/s
= 250 s
4.2 min
This leaves very little time for emergency warning.
43
b. The maximum concentration occurs at the center of the cloud directly

downwind from the release. The concentration is given by Equation 5-41:
The stability conditions are selected to maximize (C) in Equation 5-41.

This requires dispersion coefficients of minimum value. From Figure 5-12
the lowest value of either dispersion coefficient occurs with F stability
conditions. This is for night time conditions with thin to light overcast and
a wind speed less than 3 m/s. The maximum concentration in the puff also
occurs at the closest point to the release in the residential area.
44
From equation 5-41
(C )
1.0kg
3
2
2.31 10 3 kg / m 3 2310mg / m 3
2 (3.14) (5.0m) 2 (2.2m)
45
This is converted to ppm using Equation 2-7.

Assuming a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 298 K,
the concentration in ppm is 798 ppm.
This is much higher than the ERPG-1 of 1.0 ppm.
Any individuals within the immediate residential area and any personnel
within the plant will be excessively exposed if they are outside and
downwind from the source.
46
A burning dump emits an estimated 3 g/s of oxides of nitrogen. Determine the

average concentration of oxides of nitrogen from this source directly downwind at a
distance of 3km on an overcast night with a wind speed of 7 m/s
Assume that this dump is at ground-level source.
The concentration along the centreline of the plume directly downwind is given at y
= z = 0:
47
48
49
50
A trash incinerator has an effective stack height of 100 m. On a sunny day

with a 2 m/s wind the concentration of sulfur dioxide 200 m directly
downwind is measured at 5.0 x 10-5 g/m3.
a- Estimate the mass release rate (in g/s) of sulfur dioxide from this stack.
b- Estimate the maximum sulfur dioxide concentration expected on the
ground and its location downwind from the stack.
The ground-level centreline concentrations are found by setting y = z = 0:
51
Case 13
52
53
54
55
THANK YOU
56

Chapter 7A - Dispersion Models Sem2

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Chapter 7A - Dispersion Models Sem2

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Technical OSH Aspects

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Process equipment can release toxic

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Describe how vapors are transported

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

1. identifying the release incident (what process situations

2. developing a source model to describe how materials are

3. estimating the downwind concentrations of the toxic

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Various options are available, based on the predictions of

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

The purpose of the toxic release model is to provide a tool for

Table 1 contains a number of measures to mitigate a release.

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Table 1 Release Mitigation Approaches

Major Area Examples

Inventory reduction: Less chemicals inventoried or less in process

Plant physical integrity: Use better seals or materials of

Operating policies and procedures

Steam curtains Air curtains

Plume model example?

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Puff model example?

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

2- Atmospheric stability normal

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Atmospheric stability - inversion

Temperature profiles for day and night situations

Classes of atmospheric stability

The air temperature difference does not influence

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

3- Ground conditions : affect the mechanical mixing at the

surface and the wind

profile with height.

Trees and buildings increase mixing

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Height of the release

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

and momentum of the material released

Change the effective height of the release

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Buoyancy and momentum

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Used to estimate the concentrations

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Dispersion models are based on a mass

Use dispersion coefficients which represent

Coordinate system fixed at the

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Case 1: Steady-state continuous point release with no

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Eddy diffusivity, K, in case 1-10 is changed to dispersion coefficients,

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Case 12: Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Ground Level

The ground-level concentration is given at z = 0:

For continuous ground-level releases the maximum concentration occurs at the

PM Dr Ghazi Faisal Najmuldeen

Case 13: Plume with Continuous Steady-State Source at Height H, above

The ground-level centreline concentrations are found by setting y = z = 0:

The distance downwind at which the maximum ground-level concentration occurs