8.

2 AERODYNAMICS

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Effect of Shapes on Streamlined

Flow

(a) Flat Plate 100% Resistance

(c) Ovoid 15% Resistance

STREAMLINED

(b) Sphere 50% Resistance

(d) Streamlined 5% Resistance

Boundary Layer
Unaffected airflow
Each layer experience
retardation until some distance
away from surface
Next layer slowed down but not stop

Airflow nearest the surface come to res

STREAMLINED

Boundary Layer

STREAMLINED

Separation and turbulence at

various AOA

STALLING

AERODYNAMIC TERM

Stagnation point
Velocity = 0m/s

Wing tip vortices

Airfoil Shape
Symmetrical no lift at zero angle of
attack
Asymmetrical lift created even at
small angle of attack

AIRFOIL

Airfoil Shape
Medium and high speed aircraft much
less curvature lift comes from their
additional speed through the air.
Low speed aircraft cambered not for
high speed (excess lift as well as drag)

AIRFOIL

CAMBER (CURVE)
Camber curvature of an aerofoil
(wing) above and below the chord
line

Camber (curvature) of an aerofoil

PRODUCTION OF LIFT

AIRFOIL @ AEROFOIL

Any surface which produces a reaction (lift)

as air passes over it
The airfoil should provide this reaction (lift),
whilst having a shape which presents the
least possible resistance, or drag, to its
passage through air

AIRFOIL

T/C AND FINENESS RATIO

Thicness/Chord ratio = CD
AB

MEAN AERODYNAMIC
CHORD
Average distance between leading
and trailing edge of wing
Mean chord = Wing Area
Wing Span

ANGLE OF ATTACK
The acute angle formed between the
relative wind striking an airfoil and the
chord line.
Increasing the angle from zero degree to a
maximum (between 15 degrees and 18
degrees) will increase lift, but will also
increases drag.

CENTER OF PRESSURE

ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
o Angle formed by the
intersection of the wing
chord line and the horizontal
plane or longitudinal axis of
aircraft
o Positive Angle of Incidence
(AOI) leading edge higher
than trailing edge
o Correct AOI low drag +
longitudinal stability
o Wash out higher AOI at
wing root than at wing tip
o Wash in higher AOI at
wing tip than at wing root
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE

WASH IN AND OUT

Wash in :
Angle of incident increase from root to tip
Tip will stall 1st

Wash out :
Angle of incident decrease from root tip
Root will stall 1st

CENTER OF PRESSURE (c.p)

The position whereby the resultant force
(lift) cuts through chord line and
Total Lift
considered to act
Position of lines
Shape of airfoil and angle of attack
denotes direction of
influence the c.p location and direction
lift

Length of line denote

magnitude of lift

Directio
n of
airflow
Center of Pressure
CENTER OF PRESSURE

CENTER OF PRESSURE (c.p)

o Position of c.p varies during flight as the angle of
attack (AOA) altered
a. Increase AOA c.p moves forward
b. Decrease AOA c.p moves backward
o In normal flight the AOA usually between 2 and
4 (seldom below 0 or above 16)
Small AOA

Nose Heavy

Medium AOA

Balance Flight

CENTER OF PRESSURE

Large AOA

Tail Heavy

WING SHAPE

ASPECT RATIO
Ratio of aircraft wingspan to its mean
chord length

PRODUCTION OF LIFT
To keep flying aircraft
must produce a force equal
to its own weight
Greater force to lift the
aircraft from the ground
Force (lift) is provided by
the wing
The production of lift is
based on Bernoullis theory
PRODUCTION OF LIFT

Lift

Weight

Bernoullis theorem
Air velocity increase the pressure decreases
(and vice versa)
The total energy of a moving fluid is made up of three
forms of energy:
Potential Energy due to height or position
Kinetic Energy due to motion
Pressure Energy due to pressure

In a streamline flow of an ideal fluid, the sum of all

those energy is constant
Potential + Kinetic + Pressure = Constant
PRODUCTION OF LIFT

Venturi Effect

A short circular tube

with large opening at
both the front and rear
end + restrictor
between the opening
Venturi is a
convergent/divergent
duct
Bernoullis Theory is
being proven by passing
a streamline flow of air
through a venturi duct

PRODUCTION OF LIFT

Venturi Effect

PRODUCTION OF LIFT

Venturi Effect
INLE
CENTRE (THROAT)
T
Airspeed
normal Airspeed maximum
Pressure normal Pressure minimum

PRODUCTION OF LIFT

OUTLET
Airspeed
decrease
Pressure
increase
(equal to inlet
area)

Camber (Curved)
Airflow around the cambered wing behave
exactly as airflow in a venturi tube

PRODUCTION OF LIFT

Airflow on wing (Lift

distribution)
Increased Speed
Decreased Speed
70% of Total Lift

Decreased Speed
Increased Speed
30% of Total Lift

PRODUCTION OF LIFT

STREAMLINED
Streamline shape or contour that
presents a minimum resistance to the air
A perfect streamlined form is similar to the
top view of a fish
Air flows around non-streamlined object
air swirls into eddies + streamline
distorted disappear
Airstream becomes turbulent
Streamline air appears as smooth parallel
lines
Smoke jets introduce smoke into air to
observe and illustrate movement of air
STREAMLINED
around object

Effect of Shapes on Streamlined

Flow

STREAMLINED

DRAG
As an aircraft passes through the air, the air
offers a resistance to the passage.
This resistance, is known as Drag.
(Resistance to forward motion)

The total amount of drag on an aircraft is made

up of many types of drag forces.
Common type of drag:i. Form drag
ii. Parasite drag
iii. Induced drag
DRAG

DRAG
RESISTANCE TO FORWARD MOTION

DRAG

FORM DRAG
Caused by the shape or form of the aircraft
Reducing form drag
Streamlining aircraft shaped to produce
least resistance to the airflow
For least resistance object length
between 3-4 times greater than maximum
thickness
Fineness ratio ratio between length
and maximum thickness

DRAG

PARASITE DRAG
A combination of many different drag
forces
Any exposed object on an aircraft offers
some resistance to the airflow, and the
more objects in the airstream, the more
parasite drag
Reducing parasite drag
reducing the number of exposed parts to
as few as practical and streamlining their
shape.
DRAG

Streamlining

Fixed landing gear

SKIN FRICTION DRAG

A type of parasite drag most difficult to reduce
Air particles in contact with surface of the aircraft
Reducing skin friction
glossy flat finishes
eliminating protruding rivet heads, roughness, and
other irregularities.

DRAG

INDUCED AND TOTAL DRAG

Lift created by the airfoil also created drag
induced drag
Just as lift increases with an increase in
angle of attack, induced drag also
increases as the angle of attack becomes
greater.
TOTAL DRAG

DRAG

THRUST AND WEIGHT

Thrust is forward force produce by
engine
Determine by size and type use in
propulsion system
Weight is a mass of aircraft act
vertically downward
Determined by size and material
used in aircraft

FORCES ACTING ON AIRCRAFT IN

FLIGHT
THRUST

The aircrafts propelling force

Arranged symmetrically to the
centre line
Act parallel to the line of flight

WEIGHT@ GRAVITY
Acts vertically downwards
through
the Centre of Gravity
FORCES ACTING ON AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT

LIFT
Acts at right angle to the
line of flight & through the
Centre of Pressure of the
wings

DRAG
Opposes the forward
motion
Regarded as a rearward
acting force

LIFT AND DRAG

COEFFICIENT
Theoritical value base on
airfoil shape
Lift = CL x 1/2v2 x S
Drag = CD x 1/2v2 x S

IDEAL ANGLE

POLAR CURVE
Drag Polaris the relationship
between the lift and its drag interm
on coefficeient

STALL
Sudden lost of lift
i. Increase AOA separation moves forward
(turbulent)
Insufficient pressure drop on upper surface no
pressure differential to create lift

ii. Increase to higher AOA excessive turbulence

Drag increase higher than lift created

Critical Angle of Attack airflow separate +

turbulence
Critical AOA = 15 and above
STALLING

AIRFOIL CONTAMINATION
Any contamination on wing will affect
its performance
Need to provide method to remove
the contamination during flying
Type of contamination :
Ice
Snow
Frost