Chapter 10

Sustaining Terrestrial
Biodiversity: The
Ecosystem Approach

Chapter Overview Questions

How have human activities affected the

earths biodiversity?
How should forest resources be used,
managed, and sustained globally and in the
United States?
How serious is tropical deforestation, and
how can we help sustain tropical forests?
How should rangeland resources be used,
managed, and sustained?

Chapter Overview Questions (contd)

What problems do parks face, and how

should we manage them?

How should we establish, design, protect,
and manage terrestrial nature reserves?
What is wilderness, and why is it important?
What is ecological restoration, and why is it
important?
What can we do to help sustain the earths
terrestrial biodiversity?

Updates Online
The latest references for topics covered in this section can be found at
the book companion website. Log in to the books e-resources page at
www.thomsonedu.com to access InfoTrac articles.

InfoTrac: Cloud over Puerto Rico rain forest.

Chicago Tribune, March 20, 2006.
InfoTrac: Can't log the forest for the trees? Roger
Harris. American Scientist, March-April 2006 v94 i2
p120(2).
InfoTrac: The cry of the wild. Thomas L. Friedman.
The New York Times, June 28, 2006 pA21(L).
NASA: Tropical Deforestation
Greenpeace: Eating Up the Amazon

Core Case Study:

Reintroducing Wolves to Yellowstone
Endangered Species

1850-1900 two million

wolves were destroyed.

Keystone Species

Keeps prey away from open

areas near stream banks.
Vegetation reestablishes.
Species diversity expands.
Figure 10-1

HUMAN IMPACTS ON
TERRESTRIAL BIODIVERSITY
We have depleted

and degraded some

of the earths
biodiversity and these
threats are expected
to increase.

Figure 10-2

Human Population
Size and resource use

Human Activities
Agriculture, industry, economic
production and consumption, recreation

Direct Effects
Degradation and destruction Changes in number and
of natural ecosystems
distribution of species
Alteration of natural chemical Pollution of air, water,
cycles and energy flows
and soil

Climate
change

Indirect Effects
Loss of
Biodiversity
Fig. 10-2, p. 192

Why Should We Care About

Biodiversity?
Use Value: For the

usefulness in terms
of economic and
ecological services.
Nonuse Value:
existence, aesthetics,
bequest for future
generations.
Figure 10-3

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING

FORESTS
Forests provide a

number of ecological
and economic services
that researchers have
attempted to estimate
their total monetary
value.

Figure 10-4

Natural Capital
Forests
Ecological
Services
Support energy flow
and chemical cycling
Reduce soil erosion
Absorb and release
water

Economic
Services
Fuelwood
Lumber
Pulp to make paper
Mining

Purify water and air

Livestock grazing

Influence local and

regional climate

Recreation

Store atmospheric
carbon

Jobs

Provide numerous
wildlife habitats
Fig. 10-4, p. 193

Types of Forests
Old-growth forest: uncut

or regenerated forest that

has not been seriously
disturbed for several
hundred years.

22% of worlds forest.

Hosts many species with
specialized niches.

Figure 10-5

Types of Forests

Second-growth forest: a stand of trees

resulting from natural secondary succession.

Tree plantation: planted stands of a
particular tree species.
Figure 10-6

Weak trees
removed

Clear cut
25
30

Seedlings
planted

15

Years of growth

10
5

Fig. 10-6, p. 195

Global Outlook:
Extent of Deforestation
Human activities

have reduced the

earths forest cover
by as much as half.
Losses are
concentrated in
developing
countries.
Figure 10-7

Natural Capital Degradation

Deforestation

Decreased soil fertility from erosion

Runoff of eroded soil into aquatic systems
Premature extinction of species with
specialized niches
Loss of habitat for native species and
migratoryspecies such as birds and butterflies
Regional climate change from extensive clearing
Release of CO2 into atmosphere
Acceleration of flooding

Fig. 10-7, p. 196

How Would You Vote?

To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

Should there be a global effort to sharply

reduce the cutting of old-growth forests?

a. Yes. Old-growth forests can only be saved by

rapid international action and the setting aside of
large reserves of the forests.
b. No. Only local citizens and not global efforts
led by the UN can save these forests.

Case Study: Deforestation and the

Fuelwood Crisis
Almost half the people in the developing

world face a shortage of fuelwood and

charcoal.

In Haiti, 98% of country is deforested.

MIT scientist has found a way to make charcoal
from spent sugarcane.

Harvesting Trees

Building roads into previously inaccessible

forests paves the way for fragmentation,

destruction, and degradation.
Figure 10-8

Highway

Old
growth

Cleared
plots for
grazing

Highway

Cleared
plots for
agriculture

Fig. 10-8, p. 197

Harvesting Trees
Trees can be harvested

individually from diverse

forests (selective cutting),
an entire forest can be cut
down (clear cutting), or
portions of the forest is
harvested (e.g. strip
cutting).

Figure 10-9

(a) Selective cutting

Fig. 10-9a, p. 198

(b) Clear-cutting

Fig. 10-9b, p. 198

(c) Strip cutting

Uncut

Cut 1
year ago
Dirt road
Cut 310
years ago

Uncut

Stream

Fig. 10-9c, p. 198

Harvesting Trees

Effects of clear-cutting in the

state of Washington, U.S.
Figures 10-10 and 10-11

Trade-Offs
Clear-Cutting Forests
Advantages

Disadvantages

Higher timber yields

Reduces biodiversity

Maximum profits in
shortest time

Disrupts ecosystem
processes

Can reforest with fastgrowing trees

Destroys and
fragments wildlife
habitats

Short time to establish

new stand of trees

Leaves large openings

Needs less skill and

planning
Good for tree species
needing full or
moderate sunlight

Increases water
pollution, flooding, and
erosion on steep
slopes
Eliminates most
recreational value
Fig. 10-11, p. 198

Solutions
We can use forests

more sustainably by
emphasizing:

Economic value of
ecological services.
Harvesting trees no
faster than they are
replenished.
Protecting old-growth
and vulnerable areas.
Figure 10-12

Solutions
Sustainable Forestry
Identify and protect forest areas high in biodiversity
Grow more timber on long rotations
Rely more on selective cutting and strip cutting
Stop clear-cutting on steep slopes
Cease logging of old-growth forests
Prohibit fragmentation of remaining large blocks
offorest
Sharply reduce road building into uncut forest areas
Leave most standing dead trees and fallen timber for
wildlife habitat and nutrient recycling
Certify timber grown by sustainable methods
Include ecological services of forests in estimating
their economic value
Plant tree plantations on deforested and degraded land
Shift government subsidies from harvesting trees to
planting trees

Fig. 10-12, p. 199

CASE STUDY:
FOREST RESOURCES AND
MANAGEMENT IN THE U.S.
U.S. forests cover more area than in 1920.
Since the 1960s, an increasing area of old

growth and diverse second-growth forests

have been clear-cut.

Often replace with tree farms.

Decreases biodiversity.
Disrupts ecosystem processes.

Types and Effects of Forest Fires

Depending on their intensity, fires can benefit or

harm forests.

Burn away flammable ground material.

Release valuable mineral nutrients.
Figure 10-13

Solutions:
Controversy Over Fire Management
To reduce fire damage:

Set controlled surface fires.

Allow fires to burn on public lands if they dont
threaten life and property.
Clear small areas around property subject to fire.

Solutions:
Controversy Over Fire Management
In 2003, U.S. Congress passed the

Healthy

Forest Restoration Act:

Allows timber companies to cut medium and

large trees in 71% of the national forests.
In return, must clear away smaller, more fireprone trees and underbrush.
Some forest scientists believe this could increase
severe fires by removing fire resistant trees and
leaving highly flammable slash.

How Would You Vote?

To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

Do you support repealing or modifying the

Healthy Forests Restoration Act of 2003?

a. Yes. Local officials and scientists are probably

most qualified to manage their local forests.
b. No. The initiative favors the timber companies
rather than effectively protecting and managing
the forests.

Controversy over Logging in U.S. National

Forests
There has been an

ongoing debate over

whether U.S.
national forests
should be primarily
for:

Timber.
Ecological services.
Recreation.
Mix of these uses.
Figure 10-14

Trade-Offs
Logging in U.S. National Forests
Advantages

Disadvantages

Helps meet countrys

timber needs

Provides only 4% of timber

needs

Cut areas grow back

Ample private forest land to

meet timber needs

Keeps lumber and

paper prices down

Has little effect on timber

and paper prices

Provides jobs in
nearby communities

Damages nearby rivers and

fisheries

Promotes economic
growth in nearby
communities

Recreation in national
forests provides more local
jobs and income for local
communities than logging
Decreases recreational
opportunities
Fig. 10-14, p. 202

Solutions:
Reducing Demand for Harvest Trees
Tree harvesting can

be reduced by
wasting less wood
and making paper
and charcoal fuel
from fibers that do
not come from trees.

Kenaf is a promising
plant for paper
production.
Figure 10-15

American Forests in a Globalized

Economy
Timber from

tree plantations in temperate

and tropical countries is decreasing the need
for timber production in the U.S.

This could help preserve the biodiversity in the

U.S. by decreasing pressure to clear-cut oldgrowth and second-growth forests.
This may lead to private land owners to sell less
profitable land to developers.
Forest management policy will play a key role.

CASE STUDY: TROPICAL

DEFORESTATION

Large areas of ecologically and

economically important tropical forests are

being cleared and degraded at a fast rate.
Figure 10-16

CASE STUDY: TROPICAL

DEFORESTATION
At least half of the

worlds terrestrial plant

and animal species live
in tropical rain forests.
Large areas of tropical
forest are burned to
make way for cattle
ranches and crops.
Figure 10-17

Why Should We Care about the Loss

of Tropical Forests?

About 2,100 of the 3,000 plants identified by

the National Cancer Institute as sources of

cancer-fighting chemicals come from tropical
forests.
Figure 10-18

Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina,
Southeast Asia
Tranquilizer, high
blood pressure
medication

Fig. 10-18a, p. 205

Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea,
Europe
Digitalis for heart failure

Fig. 10-18b, p. 205

Pacific yew
Taxus brevifolia,
Pacific Northwest
Ovarian cancer
Fig. 10-18c, p. 205

Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana,
South America
Quinine for malaria treatment

Fig. 10-18d, p. 205

Rosy periwinkle
Cathranthus roseus,
Madagascar
Hodgkin's disease,
lymphocytic leukemia

Fig. 10-18e, p. 205

Neem tree
Azadirachta indica,
India
Treatment of many
diseases, insecticide,
spermicide

Fig. 10-18f, p. 205

Causes of Tropical Deforestation and

Degradation
Tropical

deforestation
results from a
number of
interconnected
primary and
secondary causes.

Figure 10-19

 Oil drilling
Mining
Flooding from dams
Tree plantations
Cattle ranching
Cash crops
Settler farming
Fires
Logging
Roads

Secondary Causes

Not valuing
ecological services
Exports
Government policies
Poverty
Population growth

Basic Causes
Fig. 10-19, p. 206

Solutions
Sustaining Tropical Forests
Prevention
Protect most diverse and endangered
areas

Restoration
Reforestation

Educate settlers about sustainable

agriculture and forestry
Phase out subsidies that encourage
unsustainable forest use
Add subsidies that encourage
sustainable forest use

Rehabilitation of degraded
areas

Protect forests with debt-for-nature

swaps and conservation easements
Certify sustainably grown timber
Reduce illegal cutting
Reduce poverty
Slow population growth

Concentrate farming and

ranching on already-cleared
areas
Fig. 10-20, p. 207

Kenyas Green Belt Movement:

Individuals Matter
Wangari Maathai

founded the Green Belt

Movement.
The main goal is to
organize poor women to
plant (for fuelwood) and
protect millions of trees.
In 2004, awarded Nobel
peace prize.
Figure 10-10A

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING

GRASSLANDS
Almost half of the worlds livestock graze on

natural grasslands (rangelands) and

managed grasslands (pastures).
We can sustain rangeland productivity by
controlling the number and distribution of
livestock and by restoring degraded
rangeland.

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING

GRASSLANDS
Overgrazing (left)

occurs when too

many animals
graze for too long
and exceed
carrying capacity
of a grassland
area.
Figure 10-21

MANAGING AND SUSTAINING

GRASSLANDS

Example of restored area along the San

Pedro River in Arizona after 10 years of

banning grazing and off-road vehicles.

Figure 10-22

Case Study: Grazing and Urban

Development in the American West
Ranchers, ecologists, and environmentalists

are joining together to preserve the

grasslands on cattle ranches.

Paying ranchers conservation easements

(barring future owners from development).
Pressuring government to zone the land to
prevent development of ecologically sensitive
areas.

NATIONAL PARKS
Countries have established more than 1,100

national parks, but most are threatened by

human activities.

Local people invade park for wood, cropland,

and other natural resources.
Loggers, miners, and wildlife poachers also
deplete natural resources.
Many are too small to sustain large-animal
species.
Many suffer from invasive species.

Case Study: Stresses on U.S.

National Parks
Overused due to

popularity.
Inholdings (private
ownership) within
parks threaten
natural resources.
Air pollution.
Figure 10-23

 Suggestions for

sustaining and
expanding the
national park
system in the
U.S.

Figure 10-24

Solutions
National Parks
Integrate plans for managing parks and nearby
federal lands
Add new parkland near threatened parks
Buy private land inside parks
Locate visitor parking outside parks and use
shuttle buses for entering and touring heavily
used parks
Increase funds for park maintenance and repairs
Survey wildlife in parks
Raise entry fees for visitors and use funds for
park management and maintenance
Limit the number of visitors to crowded park areas
Increase the number and pay of park rangers
Encourage volunteers to give visitor lectures and
tours
Seek private donations for park maintenance and

Fig. 10-24, p. 211

NATURE RESERVES
Ecologists call for protecting more land to

help sustain biodiversity, but powerful

economic and political interests oppose
doing this.

Currently 12% of earths land area is protected.

Only 5% is strictly protected from harmful human
activities.
Conservation biologists call for full protection of
at least 20% of earths land area representing
multiple examples of all biomes.

How Would You Vote?

To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

Should at least 20% of the Earth's land area

be strictly protected from economic

development?

a. No. Such protections would encourage people

to poach and illegally extract resources from the
expanded reserves.
b. Yes. The project is desperately needed to
protect the Earth's biodiversity.

NATURE RESERVES
Large and medium-sized reserves with buffer

zones help protect biodiversity and can be

connected by corridors.
Costa Rica has

consolidated its parks

and reserves into 8
megareserves
designed to sustain
80% if its biodiversity.
Figure 10-10B

Guanacaste

Nigaragua

Caribbean Sea
Llanuras de
Tortuguero

Costa
Rica

Arenal

Bajo
Tempisque

La Amistad

Panama

Cordillera Volcanica Central

Pacifico Central

Pacific Ocean

Peninsula Osa

Fig. 10-B, p. 213

NATURE RESERVES
A model biosphere

reserve that
contains a
protected inner core
surrounded by two
buffer zones that
people can use for
multiple use.

Figure 10-25

Biosphere Reserve

Core area

Buffer zone 1
Buffer zone 2

Tourism and
education center

Human
Settlements

Research
Station
Fig. 10-25, p. 214

NATURE RESERVES
Geographic Information System (GIS)

mapping can be used to understand and

manage ecosystems.

Identify areas to establish and connect nature

reserves in large ecoregions to prevent
fragmentation.
Developers can use GIS to design housing
developments with the least environmental
impact.

NATURE RESERVES
We can prevent or slow down losses of

biodiversity by concentrating efforts on

protecting global hot spots where significant
biodiversity is under immediate threat.
Conservation biologists are helping people in
communities find ways to sustain local
biodiversity while providing local economic
income.

34 hotspots identified by ecologists as important and

endangered centers of biodiversity.
Figure 10-26

NATURE RESERVES
Wilderness is land legally set aside in a large

enough area to prevent or minimize harm

from human activities.
Only a small percentage of the land area of
the United States has been protected as
wilderness.

ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Restoration: trying to return to a condition as

similar as possible to original state.

Rehabilitation: attempting to turn a degraded
ecosystem back to being functional.
Replacement: replacing a degraded
ecosystem with another type of ecosystem.
Creating artificial ecosystems : such as
artificial wetlands for flood reduction and
sewage treatment.

ECOLOGICAL RESTORATION
Five basic science-based principles for

ecological restoration:

Identify cause.
Stop abuse by eliminating or sharply reducing
factors.
Reintroduce species if necessary.
Protect area form further degradation.
Use adaptive management to monitor efforts,
assess successes, and modify strategies.

Will Restoration Encourage Further

Destruction?
There is some concern that ecological

restoration could promote further

environmental destruction and degradation.

Suggesting that any ecological harm can be

undone.
Preventing ecosystem damage is far cheaper
than ecological restoration.

How Would You Vote?

To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response
system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main
menu for Living in the Environment.

Should we mount a massive effort to restore

ecosystems we have degraded even though this
will be quite costly?

a. No. Less expensive alternatives, such as

remediation, replacement, and the creation of
artificial ecosystems, should be readily considered.
b. Yes. Alternatives will probably not achieve the
same biodiversity as ecological restoration.

WHAT CAN WE DO?

Eight priorities for protecting biodiversity:

Take immediate action to preserve worlds

biological hot spots.
Keep intact remaining old growth.
Complete mapping of worlds biodiversity for
inventory and decision making.
Determine worlds marine hot spots.
Concentrate on protecting and restoring lake and
river systems (most threatened ecosystems).

WHAT CAN WE DO?

Ensure that the full range of the earths

ecosystems are included in global conservation
strategy.
Make conservation profitable.
Initiate ecological restoration products to heal
some of the damage done and increase share of
earths land and water allotted to the rest of
nature.

What Can You Do?

Sustaining Terrestrial Biodiversity
Adopt a forest.
Plant trees and take care of them.
Recycle paper and buy recycled paper products.
Buy sustainable wood and wood products.
Choose wood substitutes such as bamboo furniture
and recycled plastic outdoor furniture, decking, and
fencing.
Restore a nearby degraded forest or grassland.
Landscape your yard with a diversity of plants
natural to the area.
Live in town because suburban sprawl reduces
biodiversity.

Fig. 10-27, p. 219