INTRODUCTION TO

TEXTILE

Mujahid Mehdi Abro

Indus University Karachi.

What is Textile Engineering?

It is branch of Engineering which deals with study of

textile raw materials, techniques and manufacturing

technologies of textile products, treatments, with
related testing, quality control and management
aspects.
In general, textile refers to any material made of

fibers.

Aims
To provide the knowledge of Basic Textile Engineering through teaching theory

and practical aspects of textile engineering.

Objectives
After completing this course you would be able to
get familiar with the history of Textile in general and textile history of Pakistan in

particular.
get acquainted with the Engineering process used to manufacture fibre, yarn and
the fabric
have basic knowledge of machines and raw material to produce textile products.

Processing of cotton
Cotton is the world's most important natural fiber.
In the year 2014, the global yield was 25 million tons from
35 million hectares cultivated in more than 50 countries.
There are six stages:
Cultivating
Picking
Ginning
Spinning
Weaving
Finishing

Cotton planting and picking

Cotton is primarily grown in dry tropical and

subtropical climates at temperatures between

11C and 25C. It is a warm climate crop
threatened by heat or freezing temperatures
(below 5C or above 25C), although its
resistance varies from species to species.
Excessive exposure to dryness or moisture at
certain stages of the plant development
lasting 5 to 7 months.

NO OF DAYS REQUIRED FOR THE

GROWTH OF A SEED

What is spinning???.....
The process fiber to yarn is called

as spinning.

What is Fabric?

Fabric refers to any textile material made through

weaving, knitting, braiding and bonding of fibers.

Assembly of fibers, yarns or combination of

these !!!!!!

Description of fabric manufacturing

processes

Weaving:
Weaving is a method of fabric

production in which two distinct

sets of yarns or threads are
interlaced at right angles to form
a fabric or cloth.

Knitting:
To

form a fabric by the

intermeshing of loops of yarn.

Wet processing
Wet processing plays a vital role in the area of Pre-

treatment, Dyeing, Printing & Finishing.

Wet processes are textile production processes that
require significant quantities of water, thats why the
wet processes are considered to be wet processes;
which usually covers the following area :
Singeing, desizing, Scouring, bleaching, mercerizing,
dyeing, finishing or any other wet process.

Wet processing

This is the area where we imparting colors

to a textile material.

Cotton commonly known as white gold is an important cash crop for

Pakistan and majorly grow in the province of Punjab and Sindh.

Pakistan Cotton Production

In regard to Pakistan, fourth world producing country.

Top ten cotton producers2014 (In Pakistan 170 Kg average weight/bale)

People's Republic of China
33.0 million bales
India
27.0 million bales
United States
18.0 million bales
Pakistan
10.3 million bales
Brazil
9.3 million bales
Uzbekistan
4.6 million bales
Australia
4.2 million bales
Turkey
2.8 million bales
Turkmenistan
1.6 million bales
Greece
1.4 million bales

Cotton Specie and Varieties of Pakistan

Pakistani cotton specie, gossypium arboreum, is finer

but the staple is little short but strong and suitable for
hand picking.
The best known cotton varieties of Pakistan, NIAB-78,
evolved by the Nuclear Institute of Agriculture and
Biology (NIAB) , commonly grow in Sindh and covers
well over 50% of the area under cotton cultivation in
the country; similarly an other important variety MNH93 of Punjab; which has a higher yield and has shown
tolerance to cotton leaf curl virus disease.

FIBER MAKING
COTTON GINNING
AND
MACHINERY
FOR
BETTER GINNING OPERATIONS

What is Cotton Ginning?

Ginning is the act of separating lint from seed by

mechanical means

to give spinnable cotton lint and

undamaged seed,
this process is called ginning.

Selection
When seed cotton is received in the factory
the first step is to do the selection work which is

based on
staple, grade and moisture content of seed cotton.
The seed cotton with excessive moisture content are
separated and dried so as to avoid weight losses and
the danger of there heated up.

Following seed cotton grades has been graded so far

Super

Reject
ed

Moisture content
Moisture is the most important single factor affecting

fiber quality during ginning.

The ideal ginning moisture content 7% is acceptable.

Drying
There are two methods of drying:

(i) Natural drying system &

(ii) Artificial drying system.

The seed cotton, because of morning humidity is often too wet
to gin without some drying. Therefore, especially in our country
we dry the seed cotton through natural system. Seed cotton that
is wet will not gin satisfactory, we spread the seed cotton on a
platform and expose it to the sun for several hours during this
we also make the dandhari / khalari.
In some areas of coast region, there is no much wet cotton that
has almost always been made to dry it before ginning, therefore
they use artificial drying equipment called drier. Some of these
driers dry the seed cotton by passing it through a large cylinder
or tower through which forced a hot air at the rate of 40 to 100
cubic feet for each pound of cotton the temperature of the drying
is 150 to 250 F.

Storing Seed Cotton

Seed cotton can be safely stored in modules/heaps not

more than 18 X 12 X 10 ft. if its moisture content is kept at
12% or less. Wet cotton or containing green plant material
will heat during storage and quickly deteriorate. Cotton
damage in this manner produces low grades and poor
quality seed. Modules/heaps should be checked daily. A
ventilation machine should be used to save the seed cotton
modules from heating or discoloring.

Bale press

Packaging is the final step in the processing of lint cotton at the gin.

There are four types of gin presses that product bales of differed
size and densities flat, modified flat, gin standard and gin universal.
Cotton bale press of various styles are in use, such as single, double
box down packing and the double box up packing. The bale press
consists of a ram, one or more rams, and a hydraulic system. A
pressure of 800 to 1200 tons is then applied to the bale about 22
pounds per cubic feet. Flat bales are normally packaged with six
steel bands having a strength of 3400 pounds.
A bale is usually uniform in weight as possible 175 to 180 kg, and
size 48 height 18 width and 22 length.

Fiber Testing
Testing

is a valuable aid provides instrumental

techniques effectively. When tests are made the results
must be studied carefully so that the right course of
action may be taken.

The varieties of fiber testing instruments are available,

many of them are simple in principle and have been used

in the ginning industry and fiber testing labs for a long
time. Some important instruments are relatively new, as
also are commercial models of equipment developed in
research laboratories.

The laboratories Tests Performed are:

Moisture:
To determine the percentage of moisture regain in
cotton by moisture meter.

Length:
The determination of the staple characteristics of
the cotton is carried out by classers
who use the hand stapling method
or by using the fibrograph.

Strength:
To evaluate fiber strength by using the Pressley
Tester.

Elongation:
In order to evaluate the fiber elongation by Stelometer.

Trash

%:
To assess the trash % by using Trash Analyzer.

Fineness:
In the determination of the merit of cotton for spinning the
fineness of the fiber is greater importance.
The measurement of fiber fineness apparatus is called Micronaire.

Maturity:
In order to assess the fiber maturity ratio, by Lab
instrument is called FMT.

 Colour Grade:
Image-processing solution to cotton color measurement
instrument test and evaluation by using the colouri meter.

Nep: To count neps and other impurities by the nep tester.

HIGH VOLUME INSTRUMENT:
The testing of fibers are always importance to the ginner and
spinner.
HVI is a fully automatic machine to test all fibers
properties within a very short time.

Textile Testing and Quality Control

What is Testing?
Testing is the way of control or the process to check

or verify the nature, kind or character of fiber, yarn,

fabric or any material, hence control the degree of
excellence.
Testing is the process or procedure to determines the
quality of a product.

Objects of Textile Testing

selection of raw materials
process control
product control
process development
product development
specification test, and
research

What is spinning???.....
The process fiber to yarn is called

as spinning.

Yarn Manufacturing

Textile manufacturing:

It is based in the conversion of three types of fiber

into yarn, then fabric, then textiles.
These are then fabricated into clothes or other
artifacts.
Cotton remains the most important natural fiber, so
is treated in depth.

INTRODUCTION
TO YARN MANUFACTURING

Yarn manufacturing is the process in which from fiber to yarn

manufacturing takes place is called yarn manufacturing.

OR

A process in which lint cotton fibers are converted into yarn. In

order
to
make
a
manufacturing/spinning.

suitable

thread

is

called

yarn

Background

Yarn is consist of several strands of lint fibers twisted together. The

fibers are spun into longer filaments to make the yarn. Long
continuous strands may only require additional twisting to make
them into yarns.

Spinning

Ring
Spinning

Carded
Yarn

Open-end
Spinning

Combed
Yarn

Carded Yarn

Combed Yarn

Open-end Yarn
Blowroom

Carding

Drawframe

Roter

Blow room
is the starting of the
spinning operation where
the fiber is opened, cleaned,
mixed , blend and micro
dust removed as well as
passed to carding machine.

Atmospheric conditions in blow room

Cotton is a hygroscopic material , hence it easily

adopts to the atmospheric airconditions. Air

temperature inside the blowroom area should be
more than 25 degree centigrade and the relative
humidity(RH%) should be around 45 to 60 %, because
high moisture in the fiber leads to poor cleaning and
dryness in the fiber leads to fiber damages which
ultimately reduces the spinnability of cotton.

Blowroom

Basic operations in the blow room

opening

cleaning
mixing or blending
micro dust removal
uniform feed to the carding machine
Blow room installations consists of a sequence of

different machines to carry out the above

said operations.

Major objectives of blow room

To open the fibers,
To clean the fibers, and
To produce sheet of lap for enable the feed to the next

process.

Main functions of blow room

Feeding,
Beating/opening,
Transporting, and
Lap formation.

Lap formation

In this step, lap is formed which is in a sheet or layer

form of definite width and uniform unit length. After

forming lap it is rolled in a cylindrical shape. Lap
sheet formation is formed in to two ways:
a) Scutcher (fixed) intermittent,
b) Chute feeding (continuous).

Lap formation

Carding machine

Carding.

Card
Machine for carding textile fibers,
a machine for disentangling fibers before they are

spun,
a machine for carding fiber materials for the
production of textiles;
a machine for carding cotton, wool, or other fiber, by
subjecting it to the action of cylinders, or drums
covered with wire-toothed cards, revolving nearly in
contact with each other, at different rates of speed, or
in opposite directions. The staple issues in soft
sheets, or in slim rolls called slivers.

Carding
is a mechanical process that breaks up locks and

unorganized clumps of fiber and then aligns the

individual fibers so that they are more or less parallel
with each other.

Card and its role in yarn manufacture

By achieving the following basic functions, the card

performs a key role in staple fiber yarn manufacture:
opens the tufts of cotton or man-made fibers into an

almost individual fiber state,

removes trash, dust, neps, short fibers from cotton
or fused fibers in case of man-made materials not
extracted by the blow room machines,
produces a continuous strand of fibers called sliver
which is collected in cans for subsequent
processing.

Carding functions
the

process of preparing the

fibers of cotton, wool, etc., for
spinning,
to comb out and clean fibers of
wool or cotton before spinning,
The act or process of preparing
staple for spinning, etc.

Objectives of Carding

There are eight objectives of carding machine which

are given below: opening to individual fibers,
elimination of impurities,
elimination of dust,
disentangling of neps,
elimination of short fibers,
fiber orientation,
fiber blending, and
sliver formation.

Carding

sliver formation

In order to be able to withdrawal the fiber material

into sliver, to transport it for further process.

Sliver formation

Draw Frame

Carded Slivers are fed into the Draw-Frame to

make the fibers in the Card Sliver Uniform.

The Draw Frame in a Textile Mill is
unavoidable in yarn spinning as fibers need to
be parallel. This is done as we see that most
of the fibers at carding stage are drawn so
fast that there is little or no fiber parallel.
In draw frame this is achieved in two stages.
This is termed as First Passage and second
Passage drawing.

 Draw Frame is the machine which combines many

slivers (usually 8 numbers) and gives a single

combined sliver. The combined slivers are stretched
by the machine and taken out as a single sliver. Due
to this process of combining and stretching, the
output sliver will become more uniform and hence the
quality of the final yarn will be improved.

Drawing (Drawframe)

Six

slivers or eight slivers are fed to four or five pairs of

rollers in drawing them evenly in stages from the first
pair of rollers to second and from second to third and
from third to front pairs of rollers.
The parallelization is achieved by the rollers by drawing
let's say one inch length of eight slivers from carding
weighing say one gram each which will be eight grams
per one inch, this is drawn to eight inches only to make
one gram per inch there by keeping the weight per yard
constant maintaining the standard deviation as per
standards.

Combing

Fly Frame or Simplex

Fly Frame or Simplex

This machine is used to convert the Draw frame sliver

into a thin material called Roving. This material

contain a mild amount of twist to withstand
subsequent process called Ring Frame. The Fly frame
machine also have a drafting system which stretches
the Draw frame sliver and makes it thin, the
subsequent component called Spindle imparts a mild
twist to the output material. Finally the material is
wound on a package called Bobbin. This bobbin will
be taken to the subsequent process called Ring
frame. Usually about 120 bobbins are simultaneously
wound in a Fly frame machine.

Function of Simplex Frame

The chief function of simplex
frame is the attenuation of sliver.
Insertion of protective twist in
order to hold the fine strand of
sliver. Winding of roving into a
package that can be transported,
arranged, and put on ring
spinning machine.

Main objective of Simplex

The roving/Simplex frame is an intermediate machine

between draw frame and ring frame the main

objective of this machine is to convert sliver into
thinner sliver for the convenience of subsequent
processes. The sliver we obtain from draw frame is
still thicker sliver which is not good for yarn
manufacture. So the sliver thickness or the yarn
count is reduced by this machine to the required
level. But in this operation main draw back is that the
reduction is some what so high and cannot be
obtained from roller drafting mechanisms. The
solution for this is to reduce the yarn count into a low
level but not to the level required to the yarn
manufacture which means the production of
intermediate sliver which is called roving sliver.

Ring Frame

Ring Frame
Spinning process is done by the machine called Ring frame. Ring

frame converts the roving into a yarn. The roving bobbin taken
from the previous process Fly frame is mounted on Ring frame
either automatically or manually. The Ring frame stretches the
material using a drafting system and then twist is imparted to the
material coming out from the drafting system of Ring frame. Once
twist is imparted, the material is converted into a yarn. The yarn is
then subsequently wound on a package called ring Bobbin. A Ring
frame contains two sides. For example, if a Ring frame contains
1008 yarn delivery positions, then there will be 504 deliveries on
both sides. The delivery cop will revolve continuously with the
help of an element called Spindle which usually revolve at a speed
of about 20,000 rpm. Recent days, the maximum possible speed
limit is 25,000 rpm. Delivery yarns are classified as "Counts"
based on the linear density (thickness) of the yarn.

Ring Frame

Winding (Auto cone) Machine

What is Fabric?

Fabric refers to any textile material made through

weaving, knitting, braiding and bonding of fibers.

Assembly of fibers, yarns or combination of

these !!!!!!

Fabric Manufacturing Techniques

Weaving
Knitting
Braiding
Non-Woven
Special/technical

Fabric

Description of fabric manufacturing

processes

Weaving:
Weaving is a method of fabric

production in which two distinct

sets of yarns or threads are
interlaced at right angles to form
a fabric or cloth.

Knitting:
To

form a fabric by the

intermeshing of loops of yarn.

 Braiding:
A braid is a complex structure or pattern
formed by intertwining three or more
strands of flexible material. Compared to
the process of weaving a wide sheet of
cloth from two separate, perpendicular
groups of strands (warp and weft), a braid
is usually long and narrow, with each
component strand functionally equivalent in
zigzagging forward through the overlapping
mass of the others.
Nonwoven:
Nonwoven fabric is a fabric-like material
made from long fibers, bonded together by
chemical, mechanical, heat or solvent
treatment. The term is used in the textile
manufacturing industry to denote fabrics,
such as felt, which are neither woven nor
knitted.

Weaving

Weaving is described as inter-lacing, usually at right angles, of two sets of

threads to form cloth, rug or other types of woven textiles.
Today this process is mostly automated for mass production.
Two distinct sets of yarns called the warp and the filling or weft are interlaced
with each other to form a fabric.
The lengthwise yarns which run from the back to the front of the loom are
called the warp. The crosswise yarns are the filling or weft.
A loom is a device for holding the warp threads in place while the filling threads
are woven through them.

Winding Process

Input = Yarn (Spinning Bobbin)

Output = Yarn (Large Cones,

Tubes etc)

Objectives of Winding Process

Inspect the yarn
Clearing of defects
Lubricate the yarn
Conversion of yarn from small

package to bigger package

Winding Process
Bobbin unwinding zone
Tension Zone
Clearing Zone
Joining Zone
Winding Zone

Warping
An operation where yarn is

transferred from single packages of

yarn to an even sheet representing
hundreds of ends and then wound
onto a section beam.
Input:

Cone

Output:

Warping beam

Objectives of the warping Process

Assemble several hundred warp threads into a sheet

form
Equally space all threads in the sheet from those on

each side
Place all threads under equal tension
Wind all threads onto a section beam with all threads

having same length

Converting small package to larger package

Warper Elements
Creel
Package holders
Tension devices
Guides
Stop motion

Eye board
Headstock
Comb
Beam drive
Packaging roll

Sizing (Slashing)
The method of applying a film forming

substance of starch on warp yarn before

weaving is known as sizing.

Primary objective
Increasing yarn abrasion resistance
Increasing yarn strength
Controlling yarn hairiness
Maintaining yarn flexibility
Maintaining yarn elongation
Maintaining good loom beam

preparation

FABRIC MANUFACTURING
(Weaving)

Cotton fabric manufacturing starts with the preparation of

the yarn for weaving or knitting.

Weaving is the oldest method of making yarn into fabric.

While modern methods are more complex and much faster,

the basic principle of interlacing yarns remains
unchanged.
On the loom, lengthwise yarns called the warp form the
skeleton of the fabric. They usually require a higher degree
of twist than the filling yarns that are interlaced widthwise.

 Traditionally, cloth was woven by a wooden shuttle

that moved horizontally back and forth across the

loom, interlacing the filling yarn with the horizontally,
lengthwise warp yarn.

LOOM
A loom is a device used
to weave cloth.
The basic purpose of any loom is to
hold the warp threads under tension to
facilitate the interweaving of the
weft threads.

THE LOOM

MOTIONS OF LOOM
In order to interlace warp and
weft threads to produce a
fabric, the following motion are
necessary on any type of loom:

Weaving Mechanism
(Loom motions)
In order to interlace the warp and weft yarn, there are three operations which

often called primary motions are necessary:

1.Shedding
2.Picking
3.Beat-up
There are motions as well namely as secondary / auxiliary motions mainly used

to make weaving process continuous.

1.Let-off
2.Take up
In addition to that there are some motions which are being used to make fabric

qualitative.
1.Warp Stop Motion
2.Weft Stop Motion

3. Temple
4. Selvedge

3 Basic Motions of Weaving Loom

Modern high-speed shuttleless weaving

machines
Modern weaving mills use high-speed shuttleless

weaving machines that perform at incredible rates

and produce an endless variety of fabrics.
Some carry the filling yarns across the loom at rates

in

excess

of

2,000

meters

per

minute.

Modern high-speed shuttleless weaving

machines

Rapier and Projectile

weaving machines
The rapier-type weaving machines have metal arms or

rapiers that pick up the filling thread and carry it

halfway across the loom where another rapier picks it
up and pulls it the rest of the way.
Other types employ small projectiles that pick up the

filling thread and carry it all the way across the loom.

rapier-type weaving machines

projectiles weaving machine

Air jet weaving machine

A loom using a jet of air (compressed air) to carry the

yarn "weft" through the shed.

In

addition to speed and versatility, another

advantage of these modern weaving machines is their
relatively
quiet
operation.

Air jet loom

Water jet weaving machine

A loom using a jet of water at high velocity to pushes the

weft through the shed.

Knitting

Knitting is a method by which thread or yarn is used

to create a cloth.
Knitted fabric consists of consecutive rows of loops,

called stitches. As each row progresses, a new loop

is pulled through an existing loop. The active stitches
are held on a needle until another loop can be passed
through them. This process eventually results in a
fabric, often used for garments.

weft knitting and warp knitting

There are two varieties of knitting:
weft knitting and warp knitting. A weft-knitted fabric

consists of horizontal, parallel courses of yarn and

requires only a single yarn.
By contrast, warp knitting requires one yarn for every
stitch in the row (course); these yarns make vertical
parallel wales.
Warp knitting is generally done by machine, whereas
weft knitting may be done by machine or by hand.
Knitting machines use a different mechanical system
to produce results nearly identical to those produced
by hand-knitting.

Flat knitting versus circular knitting

Circular knitting is working to create pieces that are

circular or tube-shaped, such as hats, socks, and

sleeves.
Flat knitting is usually used to knit flat pieces like

scarves, blankets, and the backs and fronts of

sweaters.

Circular knitting & Flat knitting

Wet processing
Wet processing plays a vital role in the area of Pre-

treatment, Dyeing, Printing & Finishing.

Wet processes are textile production processes that
require significant quantities of water, thats why the
wet processes are considered to be wet processes;
which usually covers the following area :
Singeing, desizing, Scouring, bleaching, mercerizing,
dyeing, finishing or any other wet process.

Wet processing

This is the area where we imparting colors

to a textile material.

Pre-treatment

Scouring
Bleaching

Mercerization

As the name suggest word pre-treatment mean, before treatment

It is a set of processes to prepare fabric for coloration and finishing

Gray Inspection

It

is checked whether the gray fabrics are in

conformity with standards, and all weaving faults are
marked out. The fabric passes through the inspection
table and is inspected. Flaws, stains or spots, yarn
knots and other imperfections are marked. The faults
are then fixed and forwarded to next process.

SINGEING

The

objective of singeing is to
remove projecting fibres, which
gives it a fuzzy appearance, from the
surface of the fabric so as to give it a
smoother, cleaner appearance.

Singeing improves the end use and

wearing properties of textiles.

Desizing
The grey cotton fabric contains natural as well

as those added to the fabric such as size to

facilitate weaving.
Size

normally contains an adhesive (film

former) and a lubricant. For cotton fabrics the
film former is usually starch or a starch
derivative. All starches are, by their vary
nature, either water-insoluble or only
sparingly soluble.

Scouring
Scouring is the process by which all

natural and
additive impurities such as oil, wax, fat, and dust etc.
are removed from gray cloth.

Bleaching

The process of bleaching gives

a sparkling whiteness to the

fabric and hence makes it
suitable for further processing.

Mercerization
Mercerization in textiles, is a chemical treatment applied

to cotton fabrics to permanently impart a greater affinity

for dyes and various chemical finishes. Mercerizing also
gives cotton cloth increased tensile strength, greater
absorptive properties, and, usually, a high degree of
lustre, depending on the method used.

Fashion Design

Fashion design is the art of the application of design

and natural beauty to clothing and accessories.

Fashion-is clothing and a style that you and other

people may have, or observe to be cool.

Design- is creating (sewing) new clothing designs and

selling, or wearing them.

Fashion shows- are great to accompany your designs.

Men Dresses

Clothes are the personality of every country. Its the

point which will informs you the nationality

associated with a man
Kurta Shalwar is comfortable and looks elegant.
Kurta shalwar consist of different colors,
which are popular in Pakistan.
Apart from this, the embroidered kurtas
are light, especially at the neckline.

Ladies wears
Pakistani Cotton Lawn Suits are famous

and popular World Wide.

These suits are perfect for summer
wear with excellent.
While Pakistani ladies Salwar Kameez
custom made according to
the desired pattern, fashion.
Readymade Salwar Kameez is the best option for
ladies wear,
when there is no time to spare.

Fashion Designers

Fashion designer plays a key role in establishing the

Fashion statement of the country.

There is a list of Pakistani Fashion designers working
tremendously in the Pakistani Fashion Industry.
Fashion designers of Pakistani Fashion industry are
continuously polishing the name of the Pakistani
Fashion Industry in the international Fashion market.

Pakistan Institute of Fashion Design

Ministry for Commerce, in collaboration with the

Trade Development Authority of Pakistan decided to

add value to the manufacturing of Pakistani Textiles
(and thereby providing a competitive edge) by
initiating the move to establish the Pakistan School of
Fashion Design.
PIFD provide a comprehensive design education,
which focuses on the relationship between the
designed product and the consumer.

ISO
(International Organization for Standardization)
ISO, the International Organization for Standardization.
ISO, develop and publish International Standards.

Popular standards:
ISO 9000 a series of quality management and quality assurance standards published by the International
Organization for Standardization.
ISO 14000 Environmental management
ISO 3166 Country codes
ISO 26000 Social responsibility
ISO 50001 Energy management
ISO 31000 Risk management
ISO 22000 Food safety management
ISO 4217 Currency codes
ISO 639 Language codes

International Organization for Standardization

ISO Central Secretariat
1, ch. de la Voie-Creuse
CP 56
CH-1211 Geneva 20
Switzerland

WTO
World Trade Organization
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization

that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade.

World Trade Organization

Centre William Rappard,

Rue de Lausanne 154,
CH-1211 Geneva 21,
Switzerland.