Fluid Mechanics - 1

Chapter 3

Fluids in Motion The

Bernoulli Equation
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

Introduction
In this chapter, we will study some typical fluid motions in an elementary
way that is
Considering fundamental laws that governs motion of fluid particles
Applying Newtons 2nd Law to Fluid particles
Obtain Bernoulli Equation and applying it to various flows
Understanding numerous assumptions applied to its derivatives
under various flow conditions
While doing analysis of a fluid flow, one must know the
restrictions on use of Bernoulli Eqn to get accurate or useful
results
This equation is said to the most used and most abused equation
in Fluid mechanics
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

Newtons Second Law

Fluid particle motion from one point to another can be expressed in term of its
acceleration and deceleration ( a )
As per Newtons 2nd Law these can be expressed in term its mass and net
forces applied, that is F = m a
In this Chapter, we will consider In-viscid, Adiabatic Flow, which means:
Zero Viscosity
No Thermal conductivity
Absence of Heat Transfer except possibility of Heat Transfer by Radiation

For establishing Net Force on the fluid particle, we assume that forces are due
to Pressure and Gravity only, (other forces are negligible)
Thus 2nd Law of Newton, becomes
( Net Pressure Forces + Net Gravity Forces )on particle
= Particle Mass x Particle Acceleration

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

Newtons Second Law /(Contd.)

The motion of particle or forces acting of it are strictly 3-D and unsteady
Three space coordinates and time are needed to describe motion of particle or
force acting on particle
Numerous coordinate systems are available, but the most commonly used are :
Rectangular Coordinates System; (x, y and z)
Cylindrical Coordinates System; ( r, and z)

In this chapter we will limit our study to 2-D flow only; (x, z plane)
Motion of a particle is generally quantified in term of Velocity vector and its
path is traced by Streamline
Velocity is defined as time rate change of the position of particle ; V=ds/dt
The path a particle follows during its motion is called Streamline
Velocity direction at any point on the path, is always tangential to Streamline at that
point

See Fig 3.1

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

Newtons Second Law /(Contd.)

For a Steady Flow, velocity (or any other property) at any point do not change
with time and each particle follow same path (Streamline)
Refer fig 3.1 (b), it is sometime convenient to use streamline coordinates, i.e.
along streamline (s) and normal to streamline (n) coordinates
Thus vector a in s-n coordinates has components
as and an
2
where

as

dV V s V

V
dt
s t s

and

an

V
R

If streamlines are parallel then an and as are zero as V/s=0 and R=infinity
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

F=ma along a Stream Line

To determine the Forces in s direction, a small Fluid particle is taken out from
the flow as shown below and Free Body diagram is drawn as below
The particle has volume; (vol)=s n y, where y is depth in normal to 2-D
figure
Newton 2nd Law and Pressure changes across its Center is applied

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3


V
sinP

ssas

F=ma along a Stream Line /(Contd.)

Applying F=ma to C.V. for s direction forces, we get:

V
V
3.2 Fs m as mV
Vol . V
S
S
Gravity Weight of C.V, can be written as w = d(Vol) where = g
Hence component of weight force in s direction is
Ws W sin Vol sin

Now Pressure Force for a steady flow, P = P (s, n) and its variation in s direction
P s Force in s direction is
is (P + Ps) and (P - Ps) where thus net Pressure
Ps
s 2

Fps P Ps n y P Ps n y 2Ps n y

P
P
s n y Vol
Thus the net Force on Control
s Volume s

3.3
P

Volequation

Fs 3.2
Ws and
Fps 3.3,
we
sinobtain
an
Combining
of motion along streamline
Eqn
s

3.4

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

F=ma along a Stream Line /(Contd.)

Eqn. 3.4 can be rearranged in Total Derivatives (integrals) using the following
observations
Sin = dz/ds
;
from inspection of Fig 3.3
V dV/ds = d (V2) ;
from knowledge of Calculus
dn =0 along streamline; or dP = (P/s)ds+ (P/n)dn= (P/s)ds
Hence (P/s) = dP/ds
Putting the above facts in Eqn. 3.4 we get a useful eqn for motion along a streamline

dz dP 1 d V 2

ds ds 2
ds

or
or

dP
3.5

1
d V 2 dz 0
2

;dP 1 V 2 if ggzis C
constant

3.6

P + V2 + h = C
;
if is constant
This is called as Bernoulli Equation

3.7

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

Restriction on Use of Bernoulli Eqn

Benoulli eqn; P+ V2+h=C
or {P1 + V12 + h1 = P2 + V22 + h2 }
is a very powerful tool in Fluid Mechanics
To use it correctly, we must remember the assumptions made in its
derivation, that are:

No viscous effects or are negligible; Inviscid Flows

The flow is steady
Flow is incompressible
Equation is applicable along a streamline
The eqn was derived using 2-D approach but is valid for 3-D flows, provided it is
applied along the streamline

See Example 3.2 for its application to a typical situation and Section 3.8
for application of restrictions
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

2
znP
d

V
R

F=ma Normal to a Stream Line

Again we consider a Newtons 2nd Law and force balance on particle in Fig 3.3 but
now in n direction
From Newtons 2nd Law, we have
3.8
mV 2 Vol V 2
Fn R R
Weight Gravity Force is
Wn W cos Vol cos
Pressure Force on particle is
Fpn P Pn y s P Pn y s 2Pn y s

P
P
s n y Vol
n
n

Thus Net Force acting on particle (weight + pressure force) is :

P

cos

Vol

n
n
pn
3.9
n

Equating RHS of Eqns 3.8 and 3.9, results

3.10

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

10

2
znP
d

V
R
2
P

nR

F=ma Normal to a Stream Line /(Contd.)

Physical interpretation of above eqn. is that change in the direction of flow (i.e.
curved path having radius R) is accomplished by the combination of Pressure
Gradient ; (p/n) and particle weight normal to streamline; (Centrifugal Forces,
V2/R)
Also if the gravity is negligible (like gas flow) or flow is horizontal (z/n =0) then
above reduces to :

This clearly indicates that with increase in R, Pressure ve gradient decrease, or in

other words, Pressure increases with increase in R ( i,.e as we move away from
center of curvature)

For Example behavior of Tornado. Also solve Example 3.3

Multiplyibg Eqn2 3.10 by n and taking P/n=dP/dn (as done earlier), we get:
or

dP
V

R dn g z
V2
P
dn z
R

Constant across a streamline

3.11

Constant across a streamline

3.12

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

11

2
V
P
R
dnz

Physical Interpretation

We studied that application of F=ma along & normal to streamline results in :

P + V2 + h = Constant along streamline
= Constant across streamline

Recall that the following assumptions were made to derive these equations:

Steady Flow; ( )/t = 0

Inviscid Flow; =0 or no shear stresses
Incompressible Flow or constant
Bernoulli Eqn. was established by integrating along natural streamline coordinates

In Bernoulli Eqn. the Force; mass times acceleration involve three identities:
Pressure (P term)
Mass times acceleration ( V2/2 ) or Kinetic Energy of Particles
Weight ( z )

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

12

2
P
V
2gz

Physical Interpretation /(Contd.)

Integration of Bernoulli equation (3.13) actually corresponds to Work-Energy

principle (used in Dynamics as well as thermodynamics)
Work-Energy principle with certain assumptions can be expressed as
Work done on a particle by all Forces acting on the particle is equal to change of
KE of the particle
The Bernoulli Equation is in fact mathematical statement of this principle
As particle moves, both Gravity and Pressure forces do WORK on the particle
Recall that by basic definition, Work = Force x Distance
In Bernoulli Equation the terms relate to work done by following Forces :
P
h
V2/2

Pressure forces
Weight forces
Forces due to Kinetic Energy of Particle

An alternate form of B.Eqn (in units of Length) is obtained by dividing 3.13 by :

= Constant along Streamline ; where
Z Elevation Head
P/ Pressure Head
V2/2g Velocity Head

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

13

Physical Interpretation /(Contd.)

We conclude our discussion on eqn 3.13 by saying :
A net force is required to accelerate any mass
For steady flow the acceleration can interpreted as change of velocity and
direction along a streamline

Now consider Eqn 3.14 (Bernoulli Equation; Across Streamlines)

The Forces acting across streamline are pressure forces or gravity forces or
combination of both
Motion normal to streamline accounts for centrifugal acceleration ( V2/R)
For straight streamlines, R is infinity so the centrifugal effects become zero
and the pressure variations across streamlines is almost hydrostatic (because
of gravity only) even the fluid is motion.

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

14

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure

A useful concept associated with Bernoulli equation deals with Static,
Dynamic and Stagnation (or total pressure)
This concept gives us the methodology of measuring / quantifying
Static and Stagnation Pressures (Units N/m2, Kpa , Psf, Psi)
Static Pressure :
For moving fluid it is measure relative to fluid motion i.e., moving along the
fluid or in other word measure as static relative to moving fluid
For static fluid it is measured as discussed in Chapter 2 and is due to Potential
Energy of the fluid only

See Figure 3.4 for further discussion on Static Pressure

(next slide)

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

15

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure

Static Pressure can be measured by making a
whole on a flat surface and attaching
piezometer tube as indicated in figure opposite;
Point 3
Pressure at Point 1 relative to fluid would be
same as measured for static fluid
Using our existing knowledge & by inspection
we can write
P1 = P3 + h3-1
where P3 = h4-3 + P0 ; refer chapter 2
and h = h3-1 + h4-3 ,(from figure markings), thus

P1 = h4-3 + P0 + h3-1 = h4-3 + h3-1) + P0

or P1 = h + P0
or P1(guage) = h
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

16

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure

Stagnation Pressure also called Total Pressure,

relates to dynamic pressure term (V2/2) of
Bernoulli Eqn
It is defined as the pressure exerted by fluid when
brought to rest isentropically
For measuring it, a tube as shown opposite, is
inserted in fluid pointing upstream, the height (H)
gives us the stagnation Pressure
Applying Bernoulli Eqn between points 1 and 2,
using V2 = 0 and Z1=Z2, we get

P2 = P1 + V12 where P2 (Stagnation Pressure) is always greater than P 1 (static

pressure) by an amount that is Dynamic pressue
In more general the Stagnation Pressure (or Total Pressure) is written as
PT = P + V2
As per Bernoulli Equation, the total pressure remains constant along a streamline
PT = P1 + V12 + z1 = P2 + V22 + z2
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

17

1
2
P

V
T
2
/
VP
T

Static, Stagnation, Dynamic and Total Pressure

It may be noted that, a Stagnation point (or stagnation streamline) is
always present for a body placed in a free stream of fluid and it
divides the upper & lower flow streams

If Total and Static Pressure of a fluid flow are known then velocity of
the fluid can be calculated as
or
This principle is used in Pitot-Static tubes
The shape and size of Pitot-Static tubes vary
considerably

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

3.16

18

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

19

h2gh
V
2

Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Eqn.

We will now discuss various additional applications of B.Eqn.

Between any two points; 1 & 2, on a streamline in steady, inviscid, incompressible
flow B.Eqn. can be applied in the form :
P1 + V12 + z1 = P2 + V22 + z2

3.17

The solution is possible if 5 variables out of 6 are known, however in many

instances other equations like conservation of mass are introduced if 5 variables
are not known
Free Jets
Consider free jet flow from a big reservoir through a nozzle, see fig
Here we take, Z1 - Z2=h; (or Z2=0), V1=0, P1= P0= P2 ; (or P1 = P1 gugae & P2 = 0)
Thus P0 + h = P0 + V2

or
h = V2
or
;
Velocity at Point 5 and P3 ???

3.18

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

20

Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Eqn.

Flow rate Measurements
Many types of devices have been developed using the principles of Bernoulli equation which
include Pitot-Static tubes
In this section we will discuss few devices to measure Flow Rates in pipes and open channels,
however the discussion will be limited to Ideal Flow Meters; effects of viscosity, compressibility
and other real-world effects are not accounted for here (Chap 8 & 10 discuss these effects)
Flow Rate in Pipes
The simplest but effective way to measure flowrate in pipe is put some restriction in the pipe
and causing decrease in pressure by increasing the velocity
Flowrate is established by measuring Pressure difference between high velocity (or Lower
Pressure) and low velocity (or Higher Pressure) sections / regions
Commonly used flow meters (Orifice, Nozzle and Venturi type) are shown below
.

Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

22

A1
21P
1
2
Q

A
2

Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Eqn.

Eqn for Flow rate in the pipes, can be established using B.Eqn and
Cont. Eqn and applying these at station 1 & 2 and keeping the
following in mind

Ideal conditions; (steady, inviscid, incompressible)

Z 1 = Z2
Velocity profiles are uniform at station 1 & 2
Applying B Eqn gives, P1 + V12 = P2 + V22

Cont. Eqn. gives, Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2

Solving the two eqns, we get

or V2/ V1 = (A1/A2)

The actual flow rate will be smaller than this theoretical flow rate
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

23

1 V22gZ1Q
2
Q

z2b21gz1
z2b2gz1

Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Eqn.

For open channel flow similar approach and assumptions are used
Consider sliced gate shown below

Applying B Eqn at points on free surface P1 + V12 + z1 = P2 + V22 + z2

Cont. Eqn. gives, Q = A1 V1 = A2 V2
=b z1 V1 = b z2 V2

Realizing the fact that P1 = P2 = P0 or P1 - P2 = 0 and Solving the two eqns, we get

In the limit of Z1 >> Z2, the above eqn becomes

This limiting value highlights the fact that if depth ratio z1/z2 is large, V1 is negligible
and Z2-Z1 = Z1 thus fluid velocity is
Fluid Mechanics - I : Chapter 3

24