Me 303 CH11

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS
Up to this point, our consideration has been limited primarily to pure substances. However, a large
number of thermodynamic problems involve mixtures of different substances. Sometimes the
mixtures are referred to as solutions, particularly in the liquid and solid phases.
11.1 General considerations and mixtures of ideal gases:

In any mixture of gases;
The mole fraction yi of component i is defined as;
ni
yi
n
ni = no. of moles of i
n = total moles in mixture
Similarly mass fraction;
mi
mf i
m
T
mi = mass of component i
m = total mass in mixture
Which properties of a mixture can We measure?

Pressure
Temperature
Volume
Mass
Chemical composition
In general, properties of mixtures

are defined as partial molal properties.
For example lets examine the internal energy of the gases
A + B shown above
P
Mixture
Gases A+B
U mix n AU A n BU B
Where U
denotes the partial molal internal energy.
Similar equations can be developed for other properties.
University of Gaziantep / Mechanical Engineering Department / Prof. Dr. M.Y. GUNDOGDU : ME 303 Thermodynamics II

In this section we focus on mixtures of ideal gases. We assume that each component is
uninfluenced by the presence of the other components, and that each component can be treated as
an ideal gas. In an actual case of a gaseous mixture at high pressure this assumption would
probably not be true because of the nature of the inflection between the molecules of different
components.
There are two models used in conjunction with the mixtures of gases, namely, the Dalton model
and the Amagat model.
A) DALTON MODEL: Properties of each component are considered as though each component
existed separately at the volume, V and temperature, T of the mixture.
Temperature = T
P
Mixture
Gases A+B
Temperature = T
Pressure = PB
Pressure = PA
Gas A
Volume V
Gas B
Volume V
V
Both the mixture, and the separated components can be considered as ideal gas.
PV PAV PBV
PBV nB R T
PAV n A R T
PV nR T
R
T
R
T
RT
+
P
V
PAV
B
n
n nA nB
B
A
P PA PB
RT
RT
Where PA and PB are called as partial pressures

B) AMAGAT MODEL: Properties of each component are considered as though each component
existed separately at the pressure, P and temperature, T of the mixture.
Temperature = T
Temperature = T
Pressure = P
Pressure = P
Mixture
Gas A
Gas B
Gases A+B
Volume VA
PV nR T
PVA n A R T
n nA nB
nA
PVA
RT
Volume VB
PVB nB R T
nB
It is so evident from Dalton & Amagat models that: V
V
In determining the U, H, and S of a mixture of
ideal gases, these models concludes that;
PVB
RT
ni Pi
n P
PV PVA PVB
RT
RT
RT
V
V
V VA VB A B 1
V
V
Where VA/V and VB/V are called as volume fractions
u nu n A u A n B u B
h nh n A h A n B hB
s ns n A s A n B s B

Other properties of ideal-gas mixtures
The extensive properties of a gas mixture, in general, can be determined by summing the
contributions of each component of the mixture. The evaluation of intensive properties of a gas
mixture, however, involves averaging in terms of mass or mole fractions:
k
U m U i mi ui N i ui
i 1
i 1
i 1
Hm Hi mi hi N i hi
i 1
k
i 1
i 1
Sm Si mi si N i si
i 1
and
i 1
um mf i ui
and
(kJ / K)
i 1
um yi ui
(kJ / kg or kJ / kmol)
i 1
and
i 1
hm yi hi
(kJ / kg or kJ / kmol)
i 1
sm mf i si
(kJ)
i 1
hm mf i hi
(kJ)
sm yi si
and
i 1
(kJ / kg K or kJ / kmol K)
i 1
Cv , m mf i Cv , i
and
i 1
i 1
C p , m mf i C p , i
i 1
Cv , m yi Cv , i
k
and
C p , m yi C p , i
i 1
Example 1: A volumetric analysis of a gaseous mixture yields the following results;

CO2
12%
O2
4%
N2
82%
CO
2%
Determine the analysis on a mass basis, and the molecular weight and the gas constant on a mass basis for the
R
8.3144
mixture. Assume ideal gas behavior.
R
0.2764kJ / kgK
M
30.08
SOLUTION:
Components
%volume
Mole fraction
Molecular weight
Mass per kmol of

mix.
Analysis on Mass
basis %
CO2
12
0.12 x
44 =
5.28 /30.08)x100
17.55
O2
0.04
32
1.28
4.26
N2
82
0.82
28
22.96
76.33
CO
0.02
28
0.56
1.86
+ 30.08 kg/kmol
+ 100
If the analysis is given on a mass basis instead of giving it in volumetric basis;

Components %mass
Mass fraction
Molecular weight
kmol per kg of mix.
Analysis on Volume
basis %
CO2
17.55
0.1755 /
44 =
0.00399 /0.03324)x100
12
O2
4.26
0.0426
32
0.00133
N2
76.33
0.7633
28
0.02726
82
CO
1.86
0.0186
28
0.00066
+ 0.03324 kmol/kg
+ 100
1
R
8.3144
30.08kg / kmol R
0.2764kJ / kgK
0.03324
M
30.08

Example 2: Let nA moles of gas A at a given pressure and temperature be mixed with n B moles of gas B at the
same pressure and temperature in an adiabatic constant-volume process. Determine the increase in entropy
for this process.
nA
nB
VA
VB
SOLUTION:
P
n=nA+nB
V=VA+VB
P2=PA+PB
s2 s1 CP ln
T2
P
R ln 2 (T cons tan t, for an ideal gas)
T1
P1
s2 s1 R ln
P2
P
nR ln 2 (for a gas mixture)
P1
P1
s2 s1 A nA R ln PA
n A R ln y A
P
s2 s1 B nB R ln PB nB R ln yB
P
s2 s1 mix s2 s1 A s2 s1 B R nA ln y A nB ln yB
s2 s1 mix R nk ln yk
k

Example 3: Two insulated tanks A and B are connected by a valve. Tank A initially
contains oxygen at 400kPa and 100C. and has a volume of 2 m3. Tank B initially contains
nitrogen at 200kPa and 500C and has a volume of 10m3. The valve is opened and
remains open until the mixture comes to a uniform state. Determine the final temperature
and
pressure
and
the
entropy
change
for
the
system.
SOLUTION:
PA1 = 400kPa
10
2m3
Oxygen
2m3 T
TA1 = 100C
PB1 = 200kPa
3
m
TB1 = 500C
Nitrogen
10 3
m
System: Tank boundaries

What is known? Tanks are insulated Q 0 , and no work has been done
First Law:
U2 U1 = 0
0 n 0 C v 0 T TA n NC
2
N2
T T
2
B
1
323.2

Example 4: An ideal-gas mixture has the following volumetric analysis
Component
% by Volume
N2
60
CO2
40
(a)Find the analysis on a mass basis.
For ideal-gas mixtures, the percent by volume is the volume fraction. Recall
Comp.
yi
Mi
yiMi
mfi = yiMi /Mm
kg/kmol kg/kmol kgi/kgm
N2
0.60
28
16.8
0.488
CO2
0.40
44
17.6
0.512
Mm = yiMi = 34.4
(b) What is the mass of 1 m3 of this gas when P = 1.5 MPa and T = 30oC?
Rm
Ru
Mm
( kJ / kg K )
kJ
kmol K 0.242 kJ
kg
kg K
34.4
kmol
8.314
mm
yi vf i
PmVm
Rm Tm
15
. MPa (1m3 )
103 kJ
( 0.242 kJ / ( kg K ))(30 273) K m3 MPa
20.45 kg
(c) Find the specific heats at 300 K.

Using Table A-2, Cp N2 = 1.039 kJ/kgK and Cp CO2 = 0.846 kJ/kgK
2
C p , m mf i C p ,i (0.488)(1.039) (0.512)(0.846)
Cv , m C p , m Rm ( 0.940 0.242 )
0.940
kJ
kgm K
0.698
kJ
kgm K
kJ
kgm K

(d) This gas is heated in a steady-flow process such that the temperature is increased by 120oC.
Find the required heat transfer. The conservation of mass and energy for steady-flow are
m 1 m 2 m
qin in C p , m ( T2 T1 )
m h Q m h
kJ
1 1
in
2 2
0.940
kgm K
kJ
112.8
kgm
(120 K )
Q in m ( h2 h1 )
p , m (T2 T1 )
mC
(e) This mixture undergoes an isentropic process from 0.1 MPa, 30oC, to 0.2 MPa. Find T2.
The ratio of specific heats for the mixture is k C p , m 0.940 1347
.
Cv , m
0.698
Assuming constant properties for the isentropic process

(f) Find Sm per kg of mixture when the mixture is compressed
isothermally from 0.1 MPa to 0.2 MPa.
But, the compression process is isothermal, T2 = T1.
The partial pressures are given by Pi yi Pm
The entropy change becomes

For this problem the components are already mixed before the compression process. So, yi , 2
2
Then,
yi ,1
sm mf i si
i 1
(0.488
0167
.
kg N 2
kgm
)( 0.206
kJ
kg N 2 K
) (0.512
kgCO2
kgm
)( 0131
.
kJ
kgCO2 K
kJ
kgm K
Why is sm negative for this problem? Find the entropy change using the average specific heats of
the mixture. Is your result the same as that above? Should it be?
(g) Both the N2 and CO2 are supplied in separate lines at 0.2 MPa and 300 K to a mixing chamber
and are mixed adiabatically. The resulting mixture has the composition as given in part (a).
Determine the entropy change due to the mixing process per unit mass of mixture.
Take the time to apply the steady-flow conservation
of energy and mass to show that the temperature of
the mixture at state 3 is 300 K.

But the mixing process is isothermal, T3 = T2 = T1. The partial pressures are given by
Pi yi Pm
The entropy change becomes
But here the components are not mixed initially. So,

and in the mixture state 3,
y N 2 , 3 0.6
y N 2 ,1 1
yCO2 , 2 1
yCO2 , 3 0.4
Then,

11.2 GAS-VAPOR MIXTURES and AIR-CONDITIONING:
-The air in the atmosphere normally contains some water vapor and is referred as atmospheric air.
-Air that contains no water vapor is called as dry air.
-Although the amount of water vapor in the air is small, it plays a major role in human comfort.
Therefore it is an important consideration in air conditioning applications
-The dry air and vapor of atmospheric air in air conditioning application range (temperature changes
from -10 to 50 ) can be treated as ideal gas
p p a pv
The total
pressure of
atmospheric air
The partial
pressure of dry
air
The partial pressure

of vapor, increases
with the amount of
vapor in air

Let us know consider a simplification of the problem involving a mixture of ideal gases that is in
contact with a solid or liquid phase of one of the components.
The most familiar example: Atmospheric air which is a mixture of dry air and water vapor, in
contact with liquid water or ice such as in Air-conditioning or drying problems.
This type problems can be analyzed quite simply with considerable accuracy if the following
assumptions are made:
1. Solid or liquid phase contains no dissolved gases
2. Gaseous phase can be treated as a mixture of ideal gases
3. When the mixture and the condensed phase are at a given pressure and temperature, the
equilibrium between the condensed phase and its vapor is not influenced by the presence of the
other component.
P =P
(H2O Vapor + Dry air)
Atm. Air MIXTURE
WATER
p pa pv
where pv p g @ Tmix
T
4
2
Tdp=Tg@Pv1=T2
T3 T2 Tdp
Dewpoint
g@T1
vv1=const
Pv1=const
T1
As to vapor state 1,
decrease the
temperature , then
pressure of vapor wont
change
For a Gas-vapor mixture:

1-The dew point of a gas-vapor mixture is the temperature at which the vapor condenses or
solidifies when it is cooled at constant pressure.
2-If mixture is cooled at constant volume(Vv1=const.), T3<T2=Tdp
3-If the vapor is at saturation pressure and temperature, the mixture is referred as a saturated
mixture, and for an air-water vapor mixture; the term saturated air is used (i.e., at state 2).

4-The relative humidity ;
pvV
The comfort level depends more on the
RvT
mv
pv Partial pressure of the vapor in the mixture
amount of moisture the air holds (m )
relative to the maximum amount of moisture

Saturation pressure of the vapor at Tmix
m g p gV
pg
the
air
can
hold
at
the
same
P
P
temperature(m ).
RvT
1 v1 v1 (see figure)
v
P4
The ratio of these two quantities is called the

relative humidity
Pg @ T 1
Since we are considering the vapor to be an ideal gas, the relative humidity can also be defined
interms of specific volume or density: Pv v vv
Pg g vg
mv
mass of vapor
ma mass of dry air (ma mmix mv )

P V P VM v
P V P VM
where: mv v v
& ma a a a
RvT
RT
RaT
RT
RP M P
a v v v
Rv Pa M a Pa
5-The humidity ratio ;
For air-water vapor mixture; Mv=18.015 kg/kmol & Ma=28.97 kg/kmol
0.622
Pv
Pa
6-The degree of saturation = Actual humidity ratio / Humidity ratio of a saturated mixture = / g
7-The relation between the relative humidity and the humidity ratio;
Pv
Pa
Pa
Pg
0.622
0.622 Pg

Example 5: Consider 100 m3 of an air-water vapor mixture at 0.1 MPa, 35 0C, 70% relative
humidity. Calculate humidity ratio, dew point, mass of air, and mass of vapor.
Pv1
Pv1
SOLUTION:
1 0.70
Pg1 @ 35C 5.628kPa

Pg1@T1=5.628kPa
0
P
0
.
7
5
.
628
3
.
94
kPa
28
.
6
C
v
1
dp
1
g
@
3
.
94
kPa
T
Pv1=3.94kPa
Pa1 P1 Pv1 100 3.94 96.06kPa
1
T1=350C
P
3.94
0
1 0.622 v1 0.622
0.0255
Tdp1=Tg@Pv=28.6 C
Pa1
96.06
ma1
Pa1V1
96.06 100
108.6kg
RaT1 0.287 308.2
mv1 1ma1 0.0255 108.6 2.77 kg
Pv1V1
3.94 100
2.77 kg
RvT1 0.46152 308.2
Example 6: Calculate the amount of water vapor condensed if the mixture of the previous example
is cooled to 5 0C in a constant-pressure process.
P
0.8721
m
SOLUTION:
2 0.622 v 2 0.622
0.0055 v 2
Pa 2
99.128
ma 2
P2 P1 0.1MPa & T2 50 C Tdp1 28.60C
ma1 ma 2 ma 108.6kg
Pv 2
Pv 2
2 1.0
Pv 2 0.8721kPa mv 2 2 ma 0.0055 108.6 0.598kg

Pg 2 @ 5C 0.8721kPa
mvcondensed mliq mv1 mv 2 ma 1 2
Pa 2 P2 Pv 2 100 0.8721 99.128kPa
mliq 108.6 0.0255 0.0055 2.172kg
OR mv1

11.3 1st Law applied to gas-vapor mixtures:
MIXTURE= DRY AIR + WATER VAPOR
umix udryair uvapor
uair Cva T
uvap Cvv T
hmix hdryair hvapor
hair CPa T
hvap CPv T
OR from steam Tables
1st Law for a CLOSED SYSTEM:

For a pure substance For an air- water vapor mixture
Q W U 2 U1
Q W U 2 U1 air U 2 U1 vapor
Q W maCva T2 T1 mvCvv T2 T1
Q W maCva T2 T1 mv 2uv 2 ml 2ul 2 mv1uv1

Q W maCva T2 T1 mv 2uv 2 ml1ul1 mv1uv1
Vapor(1)
Vapor(2)
Vapor(1)
Vapor(2) + Liquid(2)
Condensatio
n
Vapor(2)
Evaporation
1st Law for a CONTROL VOLUME operating on SSSF process:

For a pure substance For an air- water vapor mixture
Q W H 2 H1
Q W H H H H
cv
cv
1 air
1 vapor
Q cv W cv m a ha 2 ha1 m v 2 hv 2 hv1
Q cv W cv m a ha 2 ha1 m v 2 hv 2 m l1hl1 m v1hv1
0
Q cv W cv m a ha 2 ha1 m v 2 hv 2 m l 2 hl 2 m v1hv1
Q cv
ha1 1hv1 ha 2 2 hv 2 1 2 hl 2
m a
Vapor(1)
Vapor(2)
Vapor(2)
Evaporation
Vapor(1)
Condensatio
n

Example 7: A tank has a volume of 0.5 m3 and contains Nitrogen(N2) and water vapor. The
temperature of the mixture is 500C and the total pressure is 2 MPa. The partial pressure of the
water vapor is 5 kPa. Calculate the heat transfer when the contents of the tank are cooled to 10 0C.
SOLUTION:
P1 P1N Pv1 1995 5 2000kPa

2
mN
2
P1N V
2
RN T1
2
mv1
1995 0.5
10.39kg
0.2968 323.2
Pv1V
5 0.5
0.01676kg
RvT1 0.46152 323.2
If condansation takes place the final state of the vapor

will be saturated vapor at T2 100C. In this case;
2 1 Pv 2 Pg 2 @ 10C 1.2276kPa
mv 2
Pv 2V
1.2276 0.5
0.0047 kg
RvT2 0.46152 283.2
Since mv 2 mv1 there must be condensation.

ml 2 mv1 mv 2 0.01676 0.0047 0.01206kg
uv1 u g @ 50C 2443.5kJ / kg
uv 2 u g @ 10C 2389.2kJ / kg
ul 2 u f @ 10C 42.0kJ / kg
Q W U 2 U1 N U 2 U1 vapor
2
Q mN CvN 2 T2 T1 mv 2uv 2 ml 2ul 2 mv1uv1

2
Q 10.39 0.7448 10 50
0.0047 2389.2 0.01206 42.0 0.01676 2443.5
Q ( )338.8kJ

Example 8: An air-conditioning unit is shown in Figure, with pressure, temperature, and relative
humidity data. Calculate the heat transfer per kilogram of dry air, assuming the changes in kinetic
energy are negligible.
Air-water vapor
Air-water vapor
P1=105kPa
P2=100kPa
T1=300C
T2=150C
1=80%
2=95%
Cooling Coils
2 Liquid water at 150C

SOLUTION:Cooling and Dehumudification process(summer)
Qcv
From conti nuity m a1 m a 2 m a & m v1 m v 2 m l 2

Q cv
st
1 law
ha1 1hv1 ha 2 2 hv 2 1 2 hl 2
m a
where
Pv1 1Pg1@ 30C 0.8 4.246 3.397kPa
Ra Pv1
3.397
0.622
0.0208
105 3.397
Rv Pa1
Pv 2 2 Pg 2 @ 15C 0.95 1.7051 1.620kPa

R P
1.620
2 a v 2 0.622
0.0102
100 1.620
Rv Pa 2
ha 2 ha1 CPa T2 T1 1.003515 30

hv 2 hg @ 15C 2528.9kJ / kg
hv1 hg @ 30 C 2556.3kJ / kg
hl 2 h f @ 15C 62.99kJ / kg
Q
cv ha 2 ha1 2 hv 2 1hv1 1 2 hl 2
m a
Q cv
1.003515 30 0.0102 2528.9

m a
0.0208 2556.3 0.0208 0.0102 62.99
Q
cv ()41.76kJ / kgdryair
m a

Example 9: Given the inlet and exit conditions to an air conditioner shown below. What is the heat
transfer to be removed per kg dry air flowing through the device? If the volume flow rate of the inlet
dry air is 200 m3/min, determine the required rate of heat transfer. SOLUTION:
Pv ,1 1 Pg ,1 0.8(4.247 kPa ) 3.398 kPa

Tdp ,1 Tsat @ Pv 26.01o C
1
0.622 Pv1 0.622(3.398)
P1 Pv1
100 3.398
0.02188
Cooling and Dehumidification
So for T2 = 20oC < Tdp, 1, some water-vapor will
condense. Let's assume that the condensed
water leaves the air conditioner at 20oC. Some
say the water leaves at the average of 26 and
20oC; however, 20oC is adequate for our use
m a1 m a 2 m a
here.
m v1 m v 2 m l 2
m l 2 m v1 m v 2
m a ( 1 2 )
kg v
kg a
Pv 2 2 Pg 2
(0.95)( 2.339 kPa ) 2.222 kPa
0.622 Pv 2 0.622(2.222)
P2 Pv 2
98 2.222
0.01443
kgv
kga
hv1 2555.6
kJ
kg v
hv 2 2537.4
kJ
kg v
hl 2 83.91
kJ
kg v
Q net
C pa (T2 T1 ) 2 hv 2 1hv1 ( 1 2 )hl 2
m a
Q&net
C pa (T2 T1 ) 2 hv 2 1hv1 (1 2 )hl 2
m&a
1.005
kJ
kg v
kJ
o
(20
30)
C
0.01443
(2537.4
)
kg a o C
kg a
kg v
0.02188
8.627
kgv
kg
kJ
kJ
(2555.6
) (0.02188 0.01443) v (83.91
)
kg a
kg v
kg a
kg v
kJ
kg a
The heat transfer from the atmospheric air is
qout
V1
a
The mass flow rate of dry air is given by m
v1
kJ
0.287
(30 273) K 3
RaT1
kg a K
m kPa
v1
Pa1
(100 3.398) kPa
kJ
m3
0.90
kg a
Q&net
kJ
8.627
&a
m
kg a
m3
200
min 222.2 kg a
m&a
m3
min
0.90
kg a

Example 10:
3 Liquid water spraying:

Tw=100C, mlw=?
Air-water vapor
Air-water vapor
Q=0.1m3/s
P5=100kPa
0W
P1=100kPa
T5=300C
T1=5 C
0
1=50%
Electrical Heater
Q1-2=?
Fan
5=50%
SOLUTION: Heating and Humidification process (winter)

From conti nuity m
a1 ... m
a5 m
a
Q
v1 1 & Q Qv1 Qa 0.1m3 / s
v5 m
v4 m
v1 m
l3
&m
Qa
Q
1st law 1 2 ha1 1hv1 5 1 hl 3 ha 5 5 hv 5 Qv1 Qa 0.1 / 2 0.05m3 / s
a
m
m v1 Qv1 v1 0.05 0.003396 0.0001698kg / s
where Pv1 1Pg 1@ 5C 0.5 0.8721 0.436kPa
m a Qa a 0.05 1.247 0.06235kg / s
v1
Pv1
0.436
m
Pv 5 5 Pg 5 @ 30C 0.50 4.246 2.143kPa
1 0.622
0.622
0.002724
100 0.436
a
Pa1
m
P
2.143
m
5 0.622 v 5 0.622
0.01349 v 5
Pa1
99.564
3
Pa 5
100 2.143
m a
a1
1.247 kg / m
RaT1 0.287 278.2
m v 5 0.01349 0.06235 0.000841kg / s
Pv1
0.436
v1
0.003396kg / m3
m lw 3 m v 5 m v1 0.000841 0.0001698 0.0006713kg / s
RvT1 0.46152 278.2
m
Q v1 Qv1 0.003396
1 0.002724 v1 v1
a Qa1 a1
m
Qa1 1.247

Pv4=Pv5=2.143kPa
Pv1=Pv2=0.436kPa
T5=30 C
0
5
3
T1=5 C
0
2
1
ha 5 ha1 CPa T5 T1 1.0035 30 5

hv 5 hg 5 @ 30 C 2556.3kJ / kg
hv1 hg1 @ 5C 2510.6kJ / kg
hl 3 h f @ 10C 42.01kJ / kg
Q 1 2 m a ha 5 ha1 5 hv 5 1hv1 5 1 hl 3
Q 1 2 0.06235 1.0035 30 5 0.01349 2556.3
0.002724 2510.6 0.01349 0.002724 42.01
Q 1 2 3.2595kW

11.4 The adiabatic saturation
process:
INSULATED, P=constant
Air-vapor
mixture
1 1
1
INSULATED
Liquid water, T2
An important process involving an airwater vapor mixture is the adiabatic

saturation process, in which an air-vapor
mixture comes in contact with a body of
water in a well-insulated duct.
If the initial relative humidity is less than
100%, some of the liquid water will
evaporate and the temperature of the
mixture will so decrease.
If the mixture leaving the duct is
saturated and if the process is adiabatic,
the temperature of the mixture on leaving
is known as the Adiabatic Saturation
Temperature. The pressure is assumed to
be constant.
Considering SSSF adiabatic process
and neglecting changes in KE&PE, the
first law reduces to;
Saturated
air-vapor
mixture
2 1
T2=TAST=Adiabatic Saturation Temperature
Q 0 & KE 0 & PE 0
ha1 1hv1 2 1 hl 2 ha 2 2 hv 2
1 hv1 hl 2 C pa T2 T1 2 hv 2 hl 2
1 hv1 hl 2 C pa T2 T1 2 h fg 2

Example 11: The pressure of the mixture entering and leaving the adiabatic saturator is 0.1MPa,
the entering temperature is 300C, and the temperature leaving is 200C, which is the adiabatic
saturation temperature. Calculate the humidity ratio and relative humidity of the air-water vapor
mixture entering.
SOLUTION:
2 1 Pv 2 Pg 2 @ 20 C 2.339kPa
2 0.622
Pv 2
2.339
0.622
0.0149
Pa 2
(100 2.339)
from 1st law exp ression;

1
C pa T2 T1 2 h fg 2
hv1 hg1@ 30C 2556.3kJ / kg
where hl 2 h f 2 @ 20C 83.96kJ / kg
hv1 hl 2
h h
1.0035 20 30 0.0149 2454.1
1
0.0107
2556.3 83.96
fg 2
1 0.622
1
fg @ 20 C
2454.1kJ / kg
Pv1
Pv1
0.622
0.0107 Pv1 1.691kPa
Pa1
(100 Pv1 )
Pv1
Pg1 @ 30 C
1.691
0.398 39.8%
4.246

Example 12: For the adiabatic saturation process shown below, determine the relative humidity,
humidity ratio (specific humidity), and enthalpy of the atmospheric air per mass of dry air at state 1.
Using the steam tables:
h f 2 67.2
kJ
kg v
hv1 2544.7
kJ
kg v
h fg 2 2463.0
kJ
kg v
From the above analysis

C (T T ) 2 h fg 2
1 pa 2 1
( hg1 h f 2 )
1.005
kg
kJ
kJ
o
16 24 C 0.0115 v (2463.0 )
o
kg a
kg v
kg a C
kJ
(2544.7 67.2)
kg v
0.00822
kg v
kg a

1 P1
Pv1
We can solve for Pv1.
0.622 1
0.00822(100kPa )
0.622 0.00822
1.3 kPa
Then the relative humidity at state 1 is
Pv1
Pv1
Pg1 Psat @ 24o C

1.3 kPa
0.433 or 43.3%
3.004 kPa
The enthalpy of the mixture at state 1 is
h1 ha1 1hv1
C paT1 1hv1
1.005
kg v
kJ
kJ
o
(24
C
)
0.00822
2544.7
kg a o C
kg a
kg v
45.04
kJ
kg a

11.5 Dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature:
Humidity is usually found from dry bulb, wet bulb data

Continuous-flow psychrometer
Sling psychrometer
Tdb
Psychrometric
Chart
Twb
How does the wet bulb temperature differs from the dry bulp temperature?
If the initial air-vapor mixture is not saturated (i.e., 1<100%), some of the liquid water in the cotton
wick evaporates and diffuses into the surrounding air mixture. A drop in the temperature of the water
in the wick will be associated with this evaporation.
However, as soon as the temperature of the water drops, heat is transferred to the water from both
the air mixture and the thermometer.
Finally a steady state, determined by heat and mass transfer rates, will be reached.
At atmospheric pressures and temperatures of air-vapor mixtures;
Twb TAST

Wet-Bulb and Dry-Bulb Temperatures
In normal practice, the state of atmospheric air is specified by
determining the wet-bulb and dry-bulb temperatures. These
temperatures are measured by using a device called a
psychrometer.
The psychrometer is composed of two
thermometers mounted on a sling. One thermometer is fitted with
a wet gauze and reads the wet-bulb temperature. The other
thermometer reads the dry-bulb, or ordinary, temperature. As the
psychrometer is slung through the air, water vaporizes from the wet
gauze, resulting in a lower temperature to be registered by the
thermometer. The dryer the atmospheric air, the lower the wet-bulb
temperature will be. When the relative humidity of the air is near
100 percent, there will be little difference between the wet-bulb and
dry-bulb temperatures. The wet-bulb temperature is approximately
equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature. The wet-bulb and
dry-bulb temperatures and the atmospheric pressure uniquely
determine the state of the atmospheric air.

The Psychrometric Chart
For a given, fixed, total air-vapor pressure, the properties of the mixture are given in
graphical form on a psychrometric chart.
The air-conditioning processes:
Humidity Ratio
ASHRAE Comfort Zone
ulb
Te
mp
.
We
tB
Mi
xt u
re
En
tha
lp
Relative Humidity
HUMID
HOT
COLD
DRY
Dry Bulb Temp.

Fig. A.4 ENGEL
Fig. A.33 Van WYLEN
Enthalpy of atmosheric air:
Specific enthalpy of atmospheric air:
mv
h ha
hv ha hv
ma
H H a H v ma ha mv hv
In the field of air-conditioning, the reference temperature is 0. Then:

1.005 kJ/kg is the average specific
heat of dry air
1.863kJ/kg is the average specific
heat of vapor
ha= 1.005 T kJ/kg dry air

hv= 2501 + 1.863 T kJ/kg dry air
h= 1.005 T + ( 2501 + 1.863 T)
kJ/kg dry air

2501kJ/kg means the enthalpy at 0
Example 13: Determine the relative humidity, humidity ratio (specific humidity), enthalpy of the
atmospheric air per mass of dry air, and the specific volume of the mixture per mass of dry air at a
state where the dry-bulb temperature is 24oC, the wet-bulb temperature is 16oC, and atmospheric
44%
pressure is 100 kPa.
From the psychrometric chart read
gv
kg
0.008 v
kga
kga
kJ
h 46
kga
8.0
v 0.853
m3
kga
Dehumidification
m w m v1 m v 2
mw
ma
1 2
mr
ma
hmix1 hmix 2 h f 2 1 2
he hi
Humidification
m w m v 2 m v1
mw
ma
2 1
0 m a hmix 2 hmix1 h f 2 2 1
Evaporative Cooling
mw
ma
2 1
h f 2 2 1 hmix 2 hmix1
Adiabatic Mixing
m a 3 m a1 m a 2
hmix 3
m a1 hmix1 m a 2 hmix 2
ma 3
m a1 1 m a 2 2
ma3
Cooling Towers

Example 14: Atmospheric air at 30oC, 100 kPa, has a dew point of 21.3oC. Find the relative
humidity, humidity ratio, and h of the mixture per mass of dry air.
SOLUTION:
Pv 2.548 kPa
0.6 or 60%
Pg 4.247 kPa
0.622
2.548 kPa
kg
0.01626 v
(100 2.548) kPa
kga
h ha hv
C p , a T (25013
. 182
. T)
kJ
kgv
kJ
o
o
(
30
C
)
0
.
01626
(
25013
.
182
.
(
30
C
))
kga o C
kga
kgv
kJ
7171
.
kga
1005
.

Example 15: If the atmospheric air in the last example is conditioned to 20oC, 40 percent relative
humidity, what mass of water is added or removed per unit mass of dry air?
SOLUTION: At 20oC, Pg = 2.339 kPa.
Pv Pg 0.4(2.339 kPa ) 0.936 kPa

Pv
0.936 kPa
0.622
P Pv
(100 0.936) kPa
kg
0.00588 v
kga
w 0.622
The change in mass of water per mass of dry air is
mv , 2 mv ,1
ma
mv , 2 mv ,1
ma
2 1
kgv
(0.00588 0.01626)
kga
0.01038
kgv
kga
Or, as the mixture changes from state 1 to state 2, 0.01038 kg of water vapor is condensed for each
kg of dry air.

Example 16: Atmospheric air is at 25oC, 0.1 MPa, 50 percent relative humidity. If the mixture is
cooled at constant pressure to 10oC, find the amount of water removed per mass of dry air.
SOLUTION: Sketch the water-vapor states relative to the saturation lines on the following T-s
diagram.
At 25 C, Psat = 3.170 kPa, and with 1 = 50%
Pv ,1 1 Pg ,1 0.5(3.170 kPa ) 1.585 kPa
Tdp ,1 Tsat @ Pv 13.8o C

w1 0.622
Pv ,1
P Pv ,1
0.622
15845
.
kPa
(100 15845
.
) kPa
kg
0.01001 v
kga
Therefore, when the mixture gets cooled to T2 = 10oC < Tdp,1, the mixture is saturated, and =
2
100%. Then Pv,2 = Pg,2 = 1.228 kPa.
Pv ,2
1.228 kPa
w2 0.622
0.622
The change in mass of water per mass of dry air is
P Pv , 2
(100 1.228) kPa
mv , 2 mv ,1
2 1
kg
ma
0.00773 v
kg a
kg
( 0.00773 0.01001) v
kga
Or as the mixture changes from state 1 to state 2, 0.00228 kg of
water vapor is condensed for each kg of dry air.
0.00228
kgv
kga

Example 17: For the air-conditioning system shown below in which atmospheric air is first heated
and then humidified with a steam spray, determine the required heat transfer rate in the heating
section and the required steam temperature in the humidification section when the steam pressure
Psychrometric Diagram
is 1 MPa. SOLUTION:
0.050
0.045
Pressure = 101.3 [kPa]
0.040
Humidity Ratio
0.035
30 C
0.025
0.6
0.020
h3 =48 kJ/kga
0.015
0.010
0.005
At T1 = 5oC, 1 = 90%, and T2 = 24oC:
0.8
0.030
0.000
-10
20 C
h2 =37 kJ/kga
h1 =17 kJ/kga1
10 C
3 =0.0091kgv/kga
0.2
0C
-5
0.4
1 = 2 =0.0049 kgv/kga
2
0
10
v1=0.793 m^3/kga
h ha hv
15
20
25
30
35
40
T [C]
(Enthalpy of air)
E in E out
Q in m a h1 m a h2
Q in m a (h2 h1 )
(Continuity)
m a1 m a 2 m a
v1 m
v2
m
2 1

The mass flow rate of dry air is given by
V1
m a
v1
m3
60
kga
min 75.66 kga 1 min 1261
m a
.
m3
min 60s
s
0.793
kga
kga
kJ 1kWs
The required heat transfer rate for the heating section is
Q in 1261
.
s
25.22 kW
( 37 17)
kga kJ
This is the required heat transfer to the atmospheric air. List some ways in which this amount of
heat can be supplied.
At the exit, state 3, T3 = 25oC and 3 = 45%. The psychrometric chart gives
a2 m
a3 m
a
m
m v 2 m s m v 3
m s m v 3 m v 2
m s m a ( 3 2 )
kga
kg
1261
.
(0.0089 0.0049) v
s
kga
kg
0.00504 v
s

Neglecting the kinetic and potential energies and noting that the heat transfer and work are zero,
the conservation of energy yields
Ein Eout
m a h2 m s hs m a h3
m s hs m a (h3 h2 )
Solving for the enthalpy of the steam,
m a ( 3 2 )hs m a (h3 h2 )
h3 h2
hs
3 2
hs
kJ
(48 37)
kg a
kg v
(0.0089 0.0049)
kg a
kJ
2750
kg v
At Ps = 1 MPa and hs = 2750 kJ/kgv, Ts = 179.88oC and the quality xs = 0.985.
See the text for applications involving cooling with dehumidification, evaporative cooling, adiabatic
mixing of airstreams, and wet cooling towers.

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CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

11.1 General considerations and mixtures of ideal gases:

Similarly mass fraction;

Which properties of a mixture can We measure?

In general, properties of mixtures

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

Where PA and PB are called as partial pressures

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

It is so evident from Dalton & Amagat models that: V

Where VA/V and VB/V are called as volume fractions

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

Example 1: A volumetric analysis of a gaseous mixture yields the following results;

Mass per kmol of

If the analysis is given on a mass basis instead of giving it in volumetric basis;

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

System: Tank boundaries

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

(c) Find the specific heats at 300 K.

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

Assuming constant properties for the isentropic process

The entropy change becomes

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

The entropy change becomes

But here the components are not mixed initially. So,

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

The partial pressure

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

For a Gas-vapor mixture:

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

relative to the maximum amount of moisture

The ratio of these two quantities is called the

ma mass of dry air (ma mmix mv )

For air-water vapor mixture; Mv=18.015 kg/kmol & Ma=28.97 kg/kmol

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

Pg1 @ 35C 5.628kPa

mv1 1ma1 0.0255 108.6 2.77 kg

Pv 2 0.8721kPa mv 2 2 ma 0.0055 108.6 0.598kg

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

hmix hdryair hvapor

OR from steam Tables

1st Law for a CLOSED SYSTEM:

Q W maCva T2 T1 mv 2uv 2 ml 2ul 2 mv1uv1

1st Law for a CONTROL VOLUME operating on SSSF process:

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

P1 P1N Pv1 1995 5 2000kPa

If condansation takes place the final state of the vapor

Since mv 2 mv1 there must be condensation.

Q mN CvN 2 T2 T1 mv 2uv 2 ml 2ul 2 mv1uv1

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

2 Liquid water at 150C

From conti nuity m a1 m a 2 m a & m v1 m v 2 m l 2

Pv 2 2 Pg 2 @ 15C 0.95 1.7051 1.620kPa

ha 2 ha1 CPa T2 T1 1.003515 30

1.003515 30 0.0102 2528.9

CHAPTER 11: MIXTURES AND SOLUTIONS

Pv ,1 1 Pg ,1 0.8(4.247 kPa ) 3.398 kPa

0.622 Pv1 0.622(3.398)