Introduction to GPS

Ruth Neilan and Jan Kouba

IGS Central Bureau at JPL
Pasadena, California
USA

Content
GPS System Description

Space Segment
Control Segment
User Segment and Ground Segment
GPS Signals

Observations, Observation Model

Pseudorange, Carrier Phase
GPS Positioning

Navigation/Point Positioning
Relative Positioning/Differencing
GPS Denial of Accuracy
GPS Error Sources
GPS Future Developments

GPS System Description

GPS (Global Positioning System)

also called NAVSTAR (NAVigation System, Timing And

Ranging)
The GPS consists of 3 main segments:
Space Segment: the constellation of satellites
Control Segment: operation and monitoring of the GPS
System
User Segment: all GPS receivers and processing software's
We might add a 4th segment:
Ground Segment:
permanent civilian networks of reference sites, associated
analyses and archives (e.g. IGS)

GPS Space Segment

The space segments nominally consists of 24 satellites, currently:

28 (24+4 spares) active GPS satellites (26 Block II, 2 Block IIR)
Constellation design: at least 4 satellites in view from any location at
any time to allow navigation (solution for 3 position + 1 station clock
unknowns)
Right Time, Right Place, Any Time, Any Place
GPS Orbit characteristics:
Semi-Major Axis (Radius):
26,600 km
Orbital Period : 11 h 58 min
Orbit Inclination:
55 degrees
Number of Orbit Planes:
6 (60 degree spacing)
Number of Satellites:
24 (4 spares)
Approximate Mass:
815 kg, 7.5 year lifespan
Data Rate (message):
50 bit/sec
PRN (Pseudo-Random Noise) Codes:
Satellite-dependent Codes
Transmit, Frequencies L-Band
L1: 1575.42 MHtz
L2: 1227.60 MHtz

GPS Space Segment

Speed of satellites relative to the Earth center approximately 4
km/s, relative to the user up to 2.8 km/s.

GPS satellites repeat their ground tracks

after: 1 sidereal day = 23 h 56 min = 2
orbital periods. The same geometry is
reached 4 minutes earlier every day.
2:1 commensurability of GPS revolution
period with Earth rotation leads to resonance
effects with gravity field (many maneuvers
necessary).
Satellites equally distributed in each of the
six orbit planes.

GPS Space Segment

Currently: 26 Block II, 2 Block IIR, no Block I satellites are active

Picture of a Block II Satellite

GPS Control Segment

US Air Force and NIMA Control and Tracking Stations

MCS Colorado Springs

Hermitage
Bahrain
Kwajalein

Hawaii
Ascension
Ouito

Diego Garcia

Smithfield

Buenos Aires

US Airforce Tracking Sites

US Airforce Upload Sites
US NIMA Tracking
Sites

See also map at <http://164.214.2.59/GandG/satht

MCS Master Control Station

GPS User and Ground

Segment
User Segment:
All GPS receivers on land, on sea, in the air and in space.
Extremely broad user community with applications of the
GPS for:
Navigation
Surveying
Geodynamics and geophysics
Remote sensing (troposphere and ionosphere)
Time and frequency transfer
etc.
Ground Segment:
IGS global network; IGS products reference frame for
coordinates, orbits, and Earth rotation.
Regional permanent networks (Europe, Japan, US, ...):
densification of the reference frame.

GPS Signals
Signals driven by an atomic clock
Fundamental Frequency at 10.23 MHz

Two carrier signals (sine waves):

L 1 : f=1575.43 MHz, ( =19 cm ), generated by 10.23 MHz x
154
L 2 : f=1227.60 MHz, ( =24 cm), generated by 10.23 MHz x
120
Bits encoded on carrier by phase modulation:

C/A-code (Clear Access / Coarse Acquisition): 1.023 MHz ( =300

m ), 10.23/10
P-code (Protected / Precise): 10.23 MHz ( = 30 m ) at fundamental
frequency
Navigation Message: (system time, Broadcast orbits, satellite
clock corrections, almanacs, ionospheric information, etc.), 50 bps
on both L1 and L2

Observations and Models

Pseudorange measurements by delay correlation time
difference (Tr-Ts) of the received satellite and receiver replica
codes
Prs = c (Tr-Ts) = rs + c (tr - ts)
Phase differences ( r- s) (initially ambiguous), analogously
by comparing the received satellite and receiver generated
phases:
Lrs = ( r- s) = rs + c (tr - ts) + brs
Where: c is the speed of light; rs is the receiver to satellite distance; is the
wavelength; tr and ts are the receiver and satellite clock errors; brs is the
initial (non-integer) phase bias.

Navigation/Point
Positioning
Typical noise on pseudorange or phase measurements is < 1% of the
wavelengths: for C/A pseudorange: < 3m; for P-code: < .3 m and for
phase measurements: < 2 mm
Basic Observation model (equation):
rs + c (tr - ts) + brs +

Where indicates additional error sources

for pseudoranges (when brs =0) contains 4 unknowns (xr, yr, zr, tr) :
3 for the receiver position and one for receiver clock error, and
rs =((xs-xr)2 +(ys-yr)2 +(zs-zr)2)

satellite positions and clock errors (x s, ys, zs, ts) are obtained from
the navigation (broadcast) message
at least four (typically 6) simultaneous pseudorange observations
are needed for receiver position and clock determination (at m,
nsec level)
for phases an initial phase bias unknown b rs per each observed
(continuous) satellite arc must be introduced. After that (subject to
an initial phase/clock datum), phase navigation is completely
analogous to pseudorange navigation.

Relative Positioning by
Differencing

Single differencing : by subtracting simultaneous phase

observations from station A and B to the same satellite S
[ As + c (tA - ts) + bAs + ][ Bs + c (tB - ts) + bBs + ]=
ABs + c tAB + bABs

nearly eliminates satellite clocks, receivers must be

synchronized within 1 msec
reduces some common errors, in particular for short
baselines A-B, such as errors due to orbit, ionosphere or
troposphere
solutions for the station clock difference tAB still
required

Double differencing: by subtracting two single differences

(between stations A,B) to the satellites i and j.
ABij + NABij

where ABij = ABi - ABj and the double difference

phase ambiguity NABij = bABi- bABj is an integer! (all
phase instrumental biases cancel out)
station clock differences are nearly eliminated! Only 3 relative position
unknowns needed after the initial integer ambiguities are resolved

Basic Concepts
GPS Positioning: Simplified Concepts, Basic Error Sources
GPS

= observed time delay from SV signal

Ts

obs A

transmit to station A signal reception

TR = Time signal received at A

Ts = Time signal trasmitted from SV
obs A

geo =

delay due to geometry, distance

Clk A=
sv

= apparent delay due to satellite clock offset

iono

A
m

obs A =

TR

apparent delay due to user clock offset

= dispersive delay due to ionosphere

atm(wet/dry) =
mult =

delay due to troposphere

delay due to multipath (m), signal reflection

= (TR - Ts ) = geo+ Clk Asv + iono + atm(wet/dry) + mult +...

Differencing Techniques
Single Differencing: reduces common errors, SV Clock
nearly cancels, appropriate for short baselines

GPS

ts

A = observed distance, including errors

As = correct true distance SV to station

((xS-xA)2+(yS-yA)2+(zS-zA)2)1/2

tA or B = station clock error

ts = satellite clock error
tAB= difference in station clock offsets

AB =A- B c = speed of light

b = initial phase bias SV to station
B
= baseline
t

tA

= - = [ + c (t t ) + b +]-[ + c (t t ) + b +]
AB

s
A

= ABs+ ctAB+bABs

s
A

Differencing Techniques
GPSi
GPSj

B j

Ai

B j
Double Differencing: station clock offsets
nearly cancel, only 3 relative positions
needed, (x,y,z)

ABij= ABi - ABj

bABij = bABi - bABj = NABij

-->> an integer phase ambiguity

GPS Denial of Accuracy

Selective Availability (SA): intentional degradation of accuracy

Increased navigation errors (based on broadcast orbits/clocks)
from several meters to more than 30 m !
Epsilon: navigation message contained intentional orbit errors;
apparently not used; no effect when using IGS precise orbits.
Dither: satellite clock was dithered; same effect as a satellite
clock error; eliminated (mitigated) when using relative
(differential) positioning; no effect when using IGS precise
clocks (but only at the epochs of the IGS precise clock)
cm phase navigation/positioning with IGS precise orbits and
clocks!
Switched off permanently on May 2, 2000 WK 1060, Day of Year
123) at 04:00UT as directed by the President of the US.
Anti-Spoofing (AS): denial of precise P-code
Encryption of the more precise P-code on L1 and L2 (a key
available only to authorized users)
Modern GPS receivers can still perform precise code (< .3m)and
phase (<2mm) measurements on L1 and L2
Somewhat increased noise level for code measurements and for
L2 carrier phase measurements even for modern GPS receivers.

GPS Error Sources

Satellite orbits
IGS Final or Rapid orbits (available within 24h) virtually eliminate orbit
errors (<.1m) for post-processing at any epoch
In real-time the broadcast orbit errors (~3m) can be reduced (< 1m)
by DGPS (Differential GPS) or by using IGS Predicted or the UltraRapid orbits

Satellite clocks
for relative positioning double differencing nearly eliminates satellite
clock errors
IGS Final or Rapid satellite clocks (available within 24h) virtually
eliminate satellite clock errors (<.1m) for post-processing (currently
only at the 5 min epoch sampling)
in real time the broadcast clock errors (SA) reduced by DGPS

Tropospheric refraction
virtually eliminated by estimating corrections to a model (also used in
GPS meteorology); or at IGS stations, by using the IGS tropospheric
delay products!
nearly eliminated (< .1m) by using a model with measured met data

GPS Error Sources

Ionospheric refraction
for dual frequency receivers, the use of (P1, P2) or (L1, L2) virtually
eliminates ionospheric refraction (also used for ionospheric delay
determination/monitoring, e.g. by IGS, the IGS ionospheric delay products )
For single frequency receivers, the use of IGS ionospheric delay products
(available within a few weeks) significantly reduces ionospheric refraction
errors
For single frequency receivers, ionospheric refraction errors reduced in
differential (relative) positioning (e.g. DGPS) for baselines up to 100 km
Antenna phase center variations
virtually eliminated in relative positioning over moderate baseline lengths
(<500km) when using the same antenna types
antenna phase center corrections (e.g. IGS antenna phase center tables)
must be used for different antenna types and precise positioning (<.1m)
Multipath
difficult to mitigate, errors can reach a few cm for the phase and up to a
meter or more for pseudorange positioning/navigation
reduced by improved site selections and hardware (receiver/antenna)
designs

Future Developments

GPS Modernization
C/A on L2, improve codeless, cross correclation receiver processing
3rd frequency, L5 at 1176.45 MHz with full access to frequencies
available for civilian use
improved satellite designs, longer life, Hydrogen Maser frequency
standards
Spectrum protection for GPS signals remains an issue, conflict with
satellite communications interests
Need space-to-space allocation for GPS use

Full and guaranteed access (in peace time) to civilian use

guaranteed by the Presidential Decision Directive (PDD), March 1996:
SA switched off on May 2, 2000, GPS WK 1060, 123 doy at 04:00UT
no SA should allow cm interpolation of the IGS clock solutions and
instantaneous cm positioning/navigation at any instant at any time
with no base (DGPS) stations required
with no SA most DGPS should become obsolete and redundant

References
Websites

GPS Links from IGS: http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/overview/links.html

U.S. Coast Guard Navigation Information Center: http://www.navcen.uscg.mil

U.S. Department of Transportation: http://www.dot.gov

NIMA Satellite Geodesy: http://164.214.2.59/GandG/sathtml/

UNAVCO: http://www.unavco.ucar.edu/

GPS Environmental & Earth Science Information System: http://genesis/html/index.shtml

GPS Joint Program Office http://gps.laafb.af.mil/

Books:

Institute of Navigation, Global Positioning System, Vol. I, Papers published in

NAVIGATION, ISBN: 0-936406-00-3, 1980 (Spilker, Van Dierendonck, etc.

American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA), Global Positioning System:

Theory and Applications, Volume I & II, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics ISBN or
Order Number: 1-56347-107-8 , 1996

Kleusberg, A. P. Teunissen,ed. GPS for Geodesy, Lecture Notes in Earth Sciences,

Springer-Verlag, ISBN 3-540-60785-4, 1996

Springer, T.A., Modeling and Validating Orbits and Clocks Using the Global Positioning
System, Doctoral Thesis, University of Bern, Switzerland, November 1999

QUESTIONS?
Ruth E. Neilan
IGS Central Bureau
Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, California, USA
Ruth.Neilan@igscb.jpl.nasa.gov