RESEARCH AND

SAMPLING
METHODS

What is research?
Research is an organised and systematic way of

finding answers to questions

Scientific research is systematic, controlled,

empirical, and critical investigation of natural

phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses
about the presumed relations among such
phenomena.
Kerlinger, 1986

Important Components of Empirical Research

Problem statement, research questions, purposes,

benefits
Theory, assumptions, background literature
Variables and hypotheses
Operational definitions and measurement
Research design and methodology
Sampling methods
Data analysis
Interpretations, Recommendations & Conclusions,
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SAMPLING
A sample is a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a

population used to determine truths about that
population

Why sample?
Resources (time, money) and workload
Gives results with known accuracy that can be

calculated mathematically

The sampling frame is the list from which the

potential respondents are drawn

SAMPLING
Can you study the entire population?
What is your population of interest?
To whom do you want to generalize your

results?
All doctors
School children
Indians
Women aged 15-45 years
Others
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SAMPLING.
3 factors that influence sample representative-

ness

Sampling procedure
Sample size
Participation (response)

When might you study the entire population?

When your population is very small
When you dont expect a very high response

SAMPLING.
STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

Sampling
methods
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PROBABILITY

SAMPLES

Simple random sampling

Two key criteria:
1.

Every element has an equal probability of selection

Everyone has the same chance

2.

e.g., 100 students, and we want to choose a sample of 25

Each student has a 25% (.25, or 1 in 4) chance of being
selected

Every combination has an equal probability

Avoid choosing intact or pre-existing groups

e.g., there are 100 students in 4 different classrooms

25 students in each classroom
You could choose 1 classroom randomly
But this is not a simple random sample

Stratified random sampling

Divide the population into subgroups

(strata)

Take a random sample from each

Often this is more precise than SRS

(simple random sample)

There are several ways to allocate the

sample across the strata

Stratified random sampling

Year in College
1

Total

Population
enrolled

300

250

250

200

1000

30%

25%

25%

20%

Equal
allocation

100

100

100

100

n =400

120
(30%)

100
(25%)

100
(25%)

80
(20%)

n=400

Proportional
allocation

STRATIFIED SAMPLING.
Draw a sample from each stratum

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Multi-stage sampling
Used in large-scale (nationwide) surveys
There are several levels in the sampling
Each level has some sampling error

Example:
Pick regions of the country
Then a sample of cities within regions
A sample of schools within cities
Pick a grade level (or a sample of levels)
Classrooms
Students

Systematic sampling

Choose every 3rd, or 5th, or 10th person

Every nth person

Useful when there is no easy list of the population

A waiting room example (or exit poll example)

A file folder example

Why are people visiting the museum?

A sample of days and times

Then approach (intercept) every 8th person for

interview
Need a sample of 100 folders
Hard to select a random sample
Select every 20th folder

Easy, more efficient

Can be less accurate in some instances, but
mostly very helpful

SYSTEMATIC
SAMPLING

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Sequential sampling
One can go on taking

samples one after another

so long as one desires to do
so.

Sample determined as per

Mathematical decision rule

NON-PROBABILITY
SAMPLES
Snowball sampling

Start with a few people

Then get referrals for others
Keep this up

Network sampling

Studying special populations that may be

joined in a network of relationships
Look for the overlap in the referrals or
participants

If lots of overlap, a small group

If little overlap, a larger group

Example: Illegal immigrants

A hidden population
Hard to contact

Get referrals from several sources (keep track

of the sources)
Note the overlap in the lists
Possible to estimate the size of the
population

Purposive / Deliberate
sampling
This

is used primarily when

there is a limited number of
people that have expertise in
the area being researched .
Be careful about generalizing!
Sampling by excellence
Look for typical cases

Quota sampling

Used frequently in marketing surveys

Can look impressive, but be careful
Interviewer is given a set of targets (or quotas) for
different types of individuals

25% between 21-29 years

50% male
40% college graduates
etc.

But final selection is not random (or systematic)

Left up to the interviewer

Lots of room for biases here

Convenience sampling

By far the most common

We pick people because we have access to
them
Sampling by convenience

Can be useful, but be very careful to limit

generalizations

We use the Do the best you can strategy

And we are always very cautious about the

conclusions

Event sampling
Event Sampling Methodology
(ESM)
A new form of sampling method
Allows researchers to study

ongoing experiences and events

In naturally-occurring environment
Participants are asked to record
their experiences and perceptions in
a paper or electronic diary.
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Questions???

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